Kenneth Gibson, Mayor of Newark, became the first African American president of the U.S. Conference of Mayors.

Olympic track and field star Carl Lewis was born in Willingboro, New Jersey.

On this date in 1889, it was reported that 94 Black individuals had been lynched in the United States during that year. This was part of the broader era of racial violence and terror against African Americans, particularly in the South, during the post-Reconstruction period.

Lynching was used as a tool of white supremacy to enforce racial hierarchies, suppress Black economic and political progress, and instill fear. These extrajudicial killings were often carried out by white mobs with little to no legal consequences.

This reporting on July 1, 1889, is an example of how racial violence was documented, though often undercounted or ignored by mainstream white-led newspapers. Black journalists like Ida B. Wells played a crucial role in exposing the extent of lynching and advocating for justice.

On this date in 2001, the Higher Education Act (HEA) of 1965 was amended in 1998 to include a provision that denied federal financial aid to students with drug convictions. This policy, which took effect on July 1, 2000, resulted in thousands of students losing access to grants, loans, and work-study programs.

Critics argued that the law disproportionately harmed low-income students and people of color, making it harder for them to access education and move beyond past mistakes. Many advocacy groups fought for its repeal, and in 2020, Congress removed the drug conviction penalty as part of a broader overhaul of financial aid policies in the FAFSA Simplification Act.

This change was a major victory for education equity, allowing more students to pursue higher education regardless of past legal issues.

On this date in 1991, Clarence Thomas was nominated to the U.S. Supreme Court by President George H.W. Bush to replace retiring Justice Thurgood Marshall. His nomination led to a highly contentious confirmation process, including televised hearings that focused on allegations of sexual harassment made by Anita Hill, a former colleague.

Despite the controversy, Thomas was confirmed by the Senate on October 15, 1991, in a 52-48 vote, one of the closest Supreme Court confirmation votes in history. He went on to become one of the Court’s most conservative justices, known for his originalist approach to constitutional interpretation.

On this date in 1987, or the first time in U.S. history, three African American women were serving simultaneously as presidents of four-year colleges and universities.

They were:

Dr. Niara Sudarkasa – President of Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)
Dr. Johnetta Cole – President of Spelman College (Atlanta, Georgia)
Dr. Gloria Randle Scott – President of Bennett College (Greensboro, North Carolina)

This milestone was a significant moment in higher education, reflecting the growing leadership and influence of African American women in academia.

On this date in 1960, Somalia officially gained independence and was formed as a sovereign nation. This date marks the unification of British Somaliland, which had gained independence on June 26, 1960, and Italian Somaliland, which became independent on July 1, 1960. The two territories merged to create the Somali Republic.

This was a historic moment as Somalia took control of its governance after years of colonial rule. Aden Abdullah Osman Daar became the country’s first president following independence. July 1 is now celebrated as Somalia’s Independence Day, a significant national holiday.

On this date in 1924, Roland Hayes, a pioneering African American tenor, was named a soloist with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Born in 1887 in a cabin in Georgia, Hayes overcame racial barriers to become one of the first internationally acclaimed Black classical singers.

Before this achievement, he was awarded the Spingarn Medal by the NAACP for his exceptional interpretation of Negro spirituals and classical music, helping to elevate the recognition of African American folk traditions in the classical music world. His career paved the way for future Black artists in classical music, demonstrating resilience, talent, and dedication to his craft.

On this date in 1917, The East St. Louis Race Riot of July 1-3, 1917, was one of the deadliest episodes of racial violence in U.S. history. It was fueled by racial tensions over job competition between Black workers, many of whom had migrated from the South, and white laborers in the city’s booming industrial sector.

Violence erupted when white mobs attacked Black residents and workers, burning homes and businesses. Estimates of those killed ranged from 40 to over 200, with thousands of African Americans displaced. Martial law was declared, but the destruction had already devastated the community.

A Congressional investigation later acknowledged the horrific scale of the massacre, though an exact death toll was never confirmed. The riot highlighted the severe racial injustices of the time and was a precursor to future civil rights struggles in the U.S.

On this date in 1899, Thomas A. Dorsey, known as the Father of Gospel Music, was born, in Villa Rica, Georgia.

Originally a blues musician, Dorsey later pioneered modern gospel music by blending spirituals with jazz and blues influences. His most famous composition, “Take My Hand, Precious Lord,” became a gospel standard, covered by legends like Mahalia Jackson and Elvis Presley.

His influence shaped gospel music as we know it today, making him one of the most important figures in American music history. ??

On this date in 1898, during the Spanish-American War, the Tenth Cavalry, a regiment of the famed Buffalo Soldiers, played a crucial role in the Battle of El Caney and later helped relieve Theodore Roosevelt’s Rough Riders during the charge at San Juan Hill.

Four Black regiments—the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 24th and 25th Infantry—were instrumental in the battles around Santiago, Cuba. Their bravery and combat effectiveness were widely recognized, despite facing discrimination both within and outside the military.

Additionally, 16 regiments of Black volunteers were recruited to serve during the war, further highlighting the contributions of African American soldiers in this pivotal conflict. Their heroism helped shape the legacy of Black military service in the United States.

On this date in 1893, Walter Francis White was born in Atlanta, Georgia. He was a prominent civil rights activist, writer, and leader of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People). As a mixed-race man with very light skin, he was able to pass as white, which he used to investigate lynchings and racial violence in the South, often at great personal risk.

During his tenure as Executive Secretary of the NAACP (1931–1955), he played a key role in the fight against segregation, disenfranchisement, and racial violence. He also worked on landmark civil rights legal cases, including those that led to the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education (1954) decision, which ruled school segregation unconstitutional.

On this date in 1889, Frederick Douglass was appointed as the U.S. Minister Resident and Consul General to Haiti by President Benjamin Harrison. Douglass, a former enslaved person and a prominent abolitionist, orator, and writer, took on this diplomatic role at a crucial time in Haitian and American relations.

During his tenure, Douglass worked to strengthen ties between the two nations and advocated for Haitian sovereignty, especially as the U.S. sought to acquire a naval base at Môle Saint-Nicolas. However, due to tensions over American policies and Haitian resistance to U.S. influence, Douglass resigned from the post in 1891.

His experiences in Haiti deeply influenced his later speeches and writings, in which he praised Haiti’s role in the global fight against slavery while also criticizing how the U.S. and other Western nations treated the Black republic.

On this date in 1873, Henry Ossian Flipper became the first African American cadet to be admitted to the United States Military Academy at West Point. Despite facing extreme racism and social isolation from his peers, he persevered and went on to make history.

In 1877, he became the first Black graduate of West Point and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army. He later served as a Buffalo Soldier with the 10th Cavalry Regiment in the American West.

Flipper’s career was marked by both achievement and controversy—he was court-martialed in 1881 on questionable charges, but he later worked as an engineer, author, and government consultant. In 1999, he was posthumously pardoned by President Bill Clinton, officially restoring his honor.

A true pioneer! ?

On this date in 1870, James Webster Smith became the first Black cadet to enter the United States Military Academy at West Point. However, he faced severe racism, isolation, and harassment from fellow cadets and officers. Smith was eventually dismissed in 1874 before he could graduate.

The first Black cadet to successfully graduate from West Point was Henry Ossian Flipper in 1877.

On this date in 1868, the North Carolina legislature convened with a historic composition: 21 Black legislators and 149 white legislators. This was a significant moment during Reconstruction, as it marked the first time Black representatives participated in North Carolina’s government.

This came after the state ratified a new constitution earlier that year, which expanded voting rights to Black men. Many of these Black legislators were formerly enslaved individuals or free Black men who were stepping into politics for the first time.

This legislature played a crucial role in:

However, this progress faced violent opposition from white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan, leading to the eventual rollback of these rights during Jim Crow.

On this date in 1863, the Kingdom of the Netherlands officially abolished slavery in its colonies, including Suriname and the Dutch Caribbean islands (formerly known as the Dutch West Indies). This day is commemorated as Keti Koti (“Chains Broken”) in Suriname and the Netherlands, marking the liberation of enslaved people.

However, even after formal emancipation, freed individuals were required to work for 10 more years under a state-mandated contract system before they gained full freedom. This period, called Staatstoezicht (State Supervision), lasted until 1873.

Today, July 1st is recognized as a day of reflection, remembrance, and celebration in Suriname, the Netherlands, and Dutch Caribbean territories such as Aruba, Curaçao, and Bonaire. It continues to be a significant event in discussions on colonial history, reparations, and racial justice.

The Clotilda was the last recorded slave ship to bring enslaved Africans to the United States, arriving illegally in Mobile Bay, Alabama, in July 1860. Financed by plantation owner Timothy Meaher, the voyage smuggled 110 West Africans into the country over 50 years after the slave trade was outlawed.

Following its arrival, the ship was burned and sunk to hide the evidence. The survivors went on to found Africatown, a self-governed Black community near Mobile. The wreck of the Clotilda was officially discovered in 2019, confirming the long oral histories passed down by descendants.

On July 1, 1960, Ghana transitioned from a constitutional monarchy to a republic, with Kwame Nkrumah as its first President. This move solidified Ghana\’s full sovereignty following its independence from British colonial rule in 1957. Ghana\’s republican status served as an inspiration for other African nations seeking self-governance. Black Westchester Magaine

On July 1, 1970, Kenneth Gibson was sworn in as the mayor of Newark, New Jersey, making him the first African American mayor of a major Northeastern U.S. city. His election marked a significant moment in the political empowerment of African Americans during the civil rights era.

On July 1, 1971, Learie Constantine passed away. A celebrated West Indian cricketer, lawyer, and politician, he became the first Black peer in the United Kingdom when he was appointed to the House of Lords in 1969. Constantine was also a prominent advocate against racial discrimination. Because of Them We Can

Melissa Arnette \”Missy\” Elliott was born on July 1, 1971. She rose to prominence as a groundbreaking rapper, singer, and producer, known for her innovative music videos and contributions to hip-hop and R&B. Elliott\’s work has earned her numerous awards and recognition as a trailblazer for women in the music industry. Because of Them We Can

On July 1, 1863, the Battle of Gettysburg commenced during the American Civil War. While not exclusively a Black history event, the battle\’s outcome was pivotal in the Union\’s fight against the Confederacy and the eventual abolition of slavery. The participation of African American soldiers in the war effort was instrumental in shaping the nation\’s future. HISTORY

On July 1, 1955, Suriname officially recognized Keti Koti (\”the chain is broken\”) as a public holiday, commemorating the abolition of slavery in 1863. The day honors the resilience of enslaved Africans and their descendants, serving as a reminder of the country\’s colonial past and the ongoing journey toward equality. Wikipedia

On July 1, 1971, Ted Brown, a Black British activist, helped organize the United Kingdom\’s first Gay Pride Rally in London. The event marked a significant moment in LGBTQ+ history, advocating for the rights and visibility of the community, including Black LGBTQ+ individuals who faced intersecting forms of discrimination. Wikipedia

On this date in 1925, Medgar Evers was born, in Decatur, Mississippi. He was a civil rights activist and World War II veteran who played a crucial role in the fight against segregation and racial injustice in the United States. As the first field secretary for the NAACP in Mississippi, he worked tirelessly to end voter suppression, desegregate public facilities, and seek justice for African Americans who were victims of racial violence.

Evers was assassinated on June 12, 1963, outside his home in Jackson, Mississippi, by a white supremacist. His death became a turning point in the civil rights movement, further galvanizing the fight for equality. His legacy lives on through continued efforts for civil rights and social justice.

On this date, Thurgood Marshall was born, in Baltimore, Maryland. He made history as the first African American Supreme Court Justice, serving from 1967 to 1991.

Before joining the Supreme Court, Marshall was a pioneering civil rights lawyer and the lead attorney in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the landmark case that led to the desegregation of public schools. He also served as the NAACP’s chief counsel and later as a U.S. Court of Appeals judge before being appointed to the Supreme Court by President Lyndon B. Johnson.

Marshall’s legacy remains profound in shaping civil rights, justice, and equality in the U.S. ????

On this date, Elijah McCoy was granted a patent for the steam engine lubricator (U.S. Patent No. 129,843). This device automatically lubricated steam engines, allowing them to run more efficiently without the need for frequent stops for manual lubrication.

McCoy’s invention was so effective that engineers and railroad companies specifically sought out the “real McCoy” to ensure they were getting the highest-quality lubrication device. His work revolutionized industrial machinery and transportation, making him one of the most influential Black inventors in history. ??  

On this date in 2001, Robert Tools became the first person to receive the AbioCor, a self-contained artificial heart, at Jewish Hospital in Louisville, Kentucky. The AbioCor was a groundbreaking medical device developed by Abiomed, designed to completely replace the human heart without external wires or tubes.

Tools, a former telephone company employee, suffered from severe heart failure and was not eligible for a heart transplant. The AbioCor device allowed him to live for 151 days post-surgery before passing away in November 2001 due to complications.

This marked a major milestone in the development of artificial organs and paved the way for future innovations in mechanical heart technology.

On this date in 1961, Bishop Robert Clarence Lawson passed away. He was the founder of the Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith (COOLJC), a major Pentecostal denomination. Lawson was a prominent leader in the Oneness Pentecostal movement, known for his dynamic preaching, evangelism, and church planting. Under his leadership, the church expanded significantly, establishing congregations nationwide. Refuge Temple in New York City (now known as Greater Refuge Temple) became the organization’s headquarters and a major center for Apostolic worship and teaching.

Bishop Lawson also founded the W. L. Bonner College (formerly known as the School of the Prophets) and authored numerous theological writings, helping to shape the doctrine and practices of the Apostolic Pentecostal movement. His legacy continues to impact COOLJC and the broader Pentecostal community today.

On this date in 1946, Anthony Overton, an influential African American entrepreneur, banker, and publisher, passed away. Overton was best known for founding The Overton Hygienic Manufacturing Company, one of the first major Black-owned cosmetic companies in the United States. He also established The Chicago Bee, a newspaper that supported African American businesses and civil rights. Additionally, he founded the Victory Life Insurance Company and the Douglass National Bank, making him one of the first African Americans to own a national bank. His contributions played a crucial role in fostering Black economic empowerment in the early 20th century.

On this date in 1943, Lt. Charles B. Hall, a member of the legendary Tuskegee Airmen, became the first Black pilot to shoot down an enemy aircraft during World War II.

Hall, from Brazil, Indiana, was flying a P-40 Warhawk fighter plane during a mission over Sicily when he downed a German Focke-Wulf Fw 190. His achievement was a major milestone, demonstrating the skill and bravery of the all-Black 99th Fighter Squadron, which had faced skepticism about their effectiveness in combat.

For his actions, Hall was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, making history not only as a fighter pilot but also as a trailblazer for African Americans in the U.S. military.

His success and that of the Tuskegee Airmen helped pave the way for the eventual desegregation of the U.S. armed forces in 1948.

On this date in 1937, Walter F. White was honored by the NAACP in New York City for his significant contributions to civil rights. As the Executive Secretary of the NAACP, White was a key figure in investigating racial violence, particularly lynchings, and advocating for a federal anti-lynching law.

White, who was born in Atlanta, Georgia, used his unique background—he was of mixed race with a fair complexion—to pass as white and conduct undercover investigations of racial violence in the South. His efforts helped expose the horrors of lynching to the national public and push for legislative change, though a federal anti-lynching law was never passed during his lifetime.

His leadership at the NAACP also contributed to key civil rights victories, including desegregation efforts and legal battles against racial discrimination.

On this date in 1935, Ed Bullins was born. He was a groundbreaking playwright and a major figure in the Black Arts Movement, known for his works that explored Black life and culture in America. His plays, such as The Taking of Miss Janie and In the Wine Time, addressed themes of racial identity, social struggles, and Black empowerment.

Bullins was deeply involved with the Black Panther Party and worked alongside figures like Amiri Baraka to push forward a revolutionary Black theater. His influence on African American drama and theater remains significant today.

On this date, President James A. Garfield was shot at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C. by Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled office seeker.

Garfield was struck twice, once in the arm and once in the back. Despite efforts to treat him, medical practices at the time were inadequate, and he suffered for 79 days before succumbing to infections and complications on September 19, 1881.

His assassination led to major reforms in the U.S. civil service system, including the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in 1883, which aimed to curb political patronage in government hiring.

On this date in 1822, Denmark Vesey, a formerly enslaved man and skilled carpenter, was hanged in Charleston, South Carolina, after being accused of organizing a large-scale slave rebellion.

Vesey, who had purchased his freedom in 1799, was an influential leader within Charleston’s free Black community. He was alleged to have planned an uprising to free enslaved people and lead them to Haiti, where slavery had been abolished. However, the plot was discovered before it could be executed, leading to his arrest along with over 130 others.

Following a secret trial, Vesey and 35 co-conspirators were sentenced to death. His execution became a symbol of resistance against oppression, inspiring future abolitionist movements.

On this date, Vermont made history on July 2, 1777, by becoming the first American colony to abolish slavery in its state constitution. This was a groundbreaking move, setting a precedent for abolition in the northern states.

Following Vermont’s lead, other states took steps to end slavery:

1780 – Pennsylvania passed a gradual emancipation law, ensuring that children born to enslaved mothers would eventually be free.

1783 – Massachusetts and New Hampshire fully prohibited slavery. In Massachusetts, court rulings effectively ended the practice after the state’s constitution declared all men “born free and equal.”

1784 – Connecticut and Rhode Island also enacted gradual emancipation laws, phasing out slavery over time.

1799 & 1804 – New York and New Jersey followed with their own gradual emancipation laws.

These early efforts laid the foundation for the broader abolition movement, which would eventually lead to the nationwide end of slavery with the 13th Amendment in 1865.

On this date, a Black enslaved woman was acquitted of sorcery during the infamous Salem Witch Trials in colonial Massachusetts. While many were accused and convicted of witchcraft during this period, her acquittal was notable, as the trials disproportionately targeted marginalized groups, including enslaved people and women.

This event stands in contrast to the fate of Tituba, another enslaved woman of African or Indigenous descent, who was one of the first accused in Salem. Tituba was imprisoned but survived, while many others were executed.

The Salem Witch Trials remain a dark chapter in American history, reflecting mass hysteria, racial and social prejudices, and the dangers of unfounded accusations.

The Amistad mutiny is a famous and significant event in American history. On July 2, 1839, a group of enslaved Africans aboard the Spanish slave ship La Amistad staged a rebellion. Led by Joseph Cinqué (or Sengbe Pieh), they managed to kill the captain and other crew members, taking control of the ship. However, the rebels did not know how to navigate, and they were eventually captured off Long Island, New York, on August 24, 1839.

The case became a legal battle that went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, where it was ruled in 1841 that the enslaved Africans had been illegally captured and were entitled to their freedom. The Amistad case became a symbol of the abolitionist movement and highlighted the moral and legal challenges surrounding slavery in the United States.

On July 2, 1864, the U.S. Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill, which required that 50% of a seceding state\’s white males take a loyalty oath before rejoining the Union. The bill also demanded that states guarantee equality for African Americans. President Abraham Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill, leading to tensions over Reconstruction policies. HISTORY

Beginning on July 2, 1917, white mobs in East St. Louis, Illinois, attacked Black residents in a violent race riot. The violence resulted in the deaths of an estimated 39 to 150 African Americans and left thousands homeless. The massacre was one of the deadliest race riots in U.S. history and highlighted the severe racial tensions of the era. Wikipedia

Patrice Lumumba, the first Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was born on July 2, 1925. A leading figure in the country\’s independence movement, Lumumba played a pivotal role in ending colonial rule. His tenure was marked by efforts to unify the nation and resist foreign interference, though his assassination in 1961 cut his leadership short. Reddit

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law on July 2, 1964. This landmark legislation prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, ending segregation in public places and banning employment discrimination. The act was a significant victory for the civil rights movement and reshaped American society. Wikipedia

On July 2, 2021, the documentary \”Summer of Soul (…Or, When the Revolution Could Not Be Televised)\” was released. Directed by Ahmir \”Questlove\” Thompson, the film showcased the 1969 Harlem Cultural Festival, which celebrated African American music and culture. The documentary brought renewed attention to this significant event, often overshadowed in history. Wikipedia

On this date in 1941, Cab Calloway and his orchestra recorded the famous jazz standard “St. James Infirmary Blues”. This song, originally a traditional folk tune, became one of the most iconic pieces in jazz history when Calloway put his own spin on it with his distinct style.

His version, with its haunting lyrics and unique arrangement, became a classic, and it remains a staple in jazz and blues repertoires. Calloway’s rendition added to the song’s legacy, making it synonymous with the Big Band era.

On this date in 1904, Dr. Charles Drew, born in Washington, D.C., made groundbreaking contributions to the field of medicine. He attended McGill University in Montreal, Canada, where he earned his medical degree and conducted pivotal research on blood transfusion.

Dr. Drew is best known for his discovery of a method to preserve blood in the form of plasma, allowing it to be stored and transported for extended periods. This discovery played a crucial role in saving countless lives, especially during World War II, where plasma was used extensively to treat wounded soldiers.

His work on blood storage and transfusions revolutionized medical practices and laid the foundation for modern blood banks. Drew’s legacy continues to inspire advancements in medical science and blood donation programs worldwide.

On this date in 1775, Prince Hall founded Africa Lodge No. 1 in Boston, Massachusetts, marking a pivotal moment in history as it became the first Black Lodge of Free Masons in the United States.

Prince Hall, an African American abolitionist and activist, was instrumental in creating this lodge after being denied membership in mainstream Masonic lodges due to racial barriers. His efforts not only established a legacy of Black Freemasonry but also provided a space for African Americans to engage in mutual support, community building, and advocacy for civil rights during a time of extreme racial discrimination.

The establishment of Africa Lodge No. 1 is a significant milestone in both the history of Freemasonry and African American empowerment.

On this date in 1983, Calvin Smith of the United States became the fastest man alive, setting a new 100m world record with a time of 9.93 seconds (36.25 kph) in Colorado Springs, Colorado.

This record broke the previous mark of 9.95 seconds, set by Jim Hines in 1968. Smith’s achievement was groundbreaking, showcasing his incredible speed and solidifying his place in sprinting history. Later, he also won Olympic gold as part of the 4x100m relay team at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics.

On this date in 1966, Moises Alou was born. He is a former Major League Baseball (MLB) outfielder, known for his successful career playing for teams like the Montreal Expos, Florida Marlins, Houston Astros, Chicago Cubs, San Francisco Giants, and New York Mets.

Alou, the son of former MLB player and manager Felipe Alou, was a six-time All-Star and played a key role in the Florida Marlins’ 1997 World Series championship. He was known for his strong batting skills and clutch performances throughout his career.

On this date in 1966, race riots broke out in Omaha, Nebraska, amid growing racial tensions in the city. The unrest was part of a broader wave of civil rights-era conflicts occurring across the United States in the 1960s, as Black communities protested against systemic racism, police brutality, and economic inequality.

In Omaha, frustration over racial discrimination, segregation, and limited economic opportunities led to clashes between protesters and law enforcement. The riots involved property damage, arrests, and confrontations with police, further highlighting the racial divide in the city.

Omaha, like many other cities during this time, faced ongoing struggles for civil rights, fair housing, and equal opportunities for its Black residents. The events of 1966 reflected the broader movement for justice that continued throughout the decade.

On this date in 1962, Jackie Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame, cementing his legacy as one of the most influential figures in sports history. Robinson is best known for breaking Major League Baseball’s color barrier in 1947 with the Brooklyn Dodgers, becoming the first African American player in the modern era. His courage, skill, and leadership on and off the field transformed the sport and had a profound impact on the civil rights movement. Robinson’s induction into the Hall of Fame was a fitting tribute to his groundbreaking career and enduring contributions to both baseball and society.

On this date in 1956, Montel Williams was born. He is an American television personality, actor, and former Navy officer, best known for hosting the daytime talk show “The Montel Williams Show”, which ran from 1991 to 2008. Williams is also known for his advocacy in health, particularly regarding multiple sclerosis (MS), as he was diagnosed with the condition in 1999. His career has spanned various fields, including broadcasting, acting, and motivational speaking.

On this date in 1953, Harry Belafonte made history by appearing on the cover of Ebony magazine alongside actress Janet Leigh and film star Tony Curtis. This was a groundbreaking moment because it marked the first time a Black person (Belafonte) and two Caucasian actors (Leigh and Curtis) were featured together on the cover of a major U.S. magazine.

The cover highlighted Belafonte’s rising star power in Hollywood during the 1950s, especially as he was gaining fame for his music, acting, and activism. This historic moment reflected a shift in racial dynamics within the entertainment industry, promoting the idea of greater inclusivity and collaboration across racial lines.

On this date in 1940, Fontella Bass was born in St. Louis, Missouri. She was an iconic American singer known for her powerful voice and contributions to the R&B, soul, and gospel music genres. Bass is best remembered for her hit song “Rescue Me,” released in 1965, which became a classic and is still celebrated as one of the best soul tracks of all time.

Her career spanned several decades, and she was also known for her collaborations with artists like Otis Redding and for her work in the gospel music scene. Fontella Bass’s music continues to influence many artists today, and her legacy remains a significant part of American music history.

On this date in 1936, John Hope, who was the president of Atlanta University, was honored in New York City by the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) for his significant contributions to education and civil rights.

John Hope was a trailblazer in African American education, having served as the first African American president of Atlanta University. His leadership helped to elevate the institution and was key in advancing education for Black students in the South. In addition to his work in education, he was also a passionate advocate for civil rights, making him a respected figure in the fight for equality during the early 20th century.

His recognition by the NAACP was a testament to his tireless work in both the educational and civil rights arenas.

On this date in 1929, David Lynch, a legendary member of the iconic Platters, was born. He became a key figure in the group, which is known for its timeless hits like “Only You”, “The Great Pretender”, and “Smoke Gets in Your Eyes”. The Platters were one of the most popular vocal groups of the 1950s and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990.

David Lynch’s contributions helped shape the sound of early rock and roll and doo-wop, leaving a lasting legacy in the music world.

On this date in 1848, slavery was abolished in the Danish West Indies, now known as the U.S. Virgin Islands. This historic event was marked by a peaceful revolt on the island of St. Croix, where enslaved people led by Thomas Christian, a former enslaved man, demanded their freedom. The Danish colonial government, facing pressure and unrest, officially declared the end of slavery on this day.

The abolition of slavery in the Danish West Indies came almost two decades before the U.S. Civil War and the broader abolition movement in the Americas. The event is now celebrated as Emancipation Day in the U.S. Virgin Islands, a symbol of the resilience and strength of those who fought for their freedom.

July?3,?1917 marked the escalation of one of the worst racial massacres in U.S. history. On that day, white mobs renewed violent attacks—beatings, arson, kidnappings—against Black residents and homes in East St. Louis, Illinois. Following labor migration from the rural South, competing for industrial jobs, white terror erupted. While July?2 saw initial violence, July?3 brought further destruction, driving mass displacement. Over the following days, at least 39 African-Americans were killed and hundreds wounded. This atrocity inspired W.E.B. Du Bois to call it “The Massacre of East St.?Louis,” and it prompted NAACP-led investigations and federal scrutiny .

On July?3,?1919, Black members of the 10th U.S. Cavalry—the famed “Buffalo Soldiers”—clashed with local law enforcement in Bisbee, Arizona. Tensions arose from racial hostility amid the broader “Red Summer” of 1919. Local police had attempted mass disarmament of returning Black troops, leading to armed resistance. The confrontation became known as the Battle of Brewery Gulch. Though little-known, it exemplified post-WWI racial violence across the nation and highlighted Black veterans\’ resistance to racist oppression.

On July?3,?1930, political dissident Otto Strasser officially founded the “Black Front” (Schwarze Front), a left-wing splinter movement opposing Hitler’s Nazi Party. Though not a Black history event in the racial sense, its name and context are unrelated to African diasporic history. Therefore, this date is omitted from this list.

In the wake of the Civil Rights Act passed on July?2,?1964, segregationist restaurant owner Lester Maddox forced three Black men out of his Pickrick Restaurant in Atlanta with axe handles on July?3,?1964. He defied the law requiring public accommodations to integrate, and the incident was documented by the Justice Department. Maddox later became Georgia’s governor (1967–1971), continuing to oppose desegregation. This standoff exemplified the massive resistance to federal civil rights enforcement following landmark legislation en.wikipedia.org.

On July?3,?1950, Trinidadian-born jazz pianist and actress Hazel Scott became the first Black woman to host her own U.S. network television show with The?Hazel Scott Show, aired on DuMont. This 15?minute program featured her piano performances and classical/jazz interpretations. Despite its short run (later canceled amid McCarthy-era pressure), it broke racial barriers in media representation. Hazel Scott advocated for civil rights and better portrayal of Black artists before her untimely departure from the screen.

While not strictly a “Black event,” the Union victory on July?3,?1863, concluding the Battle of Gettysburg, forced Confederate retreat and marked a turning point in American Civil War. Most crucially, it validated the role of Black soldiers who had joined the Union ranks after the Emancipation Proclamation. Their contributions in subsequent campaigns shaped Union victories and advanced the cause of emancipation. The event’s context is essential in Black history as the momentum toward full abolition solidified geopoliticalfutures.com.

On July?1–3,?1863, the Dutch colonies of Suriname and Curaçao formally abolished slavery. While exact date conventions vary, the emancipatory legislation took effect over that period. July?3 often marks the final legal enactment. Emancipation in these colonies set a precedent in the Caribbean, freeing Indigenous and African-descended peoples, and impacted regional abolition dynamics en.wikipedia.org.

Several sources agree that July?3,?1863, saw the results and legacy of the 54th Massachusetts’ valorous assault on Fort Wagner (the attack occurred July?18, but its fame and military impact are tied to Gettysburg day). This volunteer Black regiment’s bravery was a watershed illustrating Black soldier heroism and influenced accelerating enlistment and equality in military service en.wikipedia.org.

On July?3,?2021, the first National Crown Day was held to commemorate the federal signing of the CROWN Act, combatting hair discrimination toward Black people. Spearheaded by the Crown Coalition—including the National Urban League and Color of Change—this observance and accompanying awards elevated Black hair justice culture, bolstered future state-level legislation, and challenged appearance-based bias.

On this date in 2002, Four Star General Benjamin O. Davis Jr., the first African American general in the United States Air Force, passed away at age 89. He was the fourth African American to graduate from West Point. He led the Tuskegee Air Men. His father, Benjamin O. Davis. Sr. was the first African American Army General.

Davis Jr. was a pioneering figure in American military history. He overcame racial discrimination to become a highly respected leader and served in various capacities during his career, including as a key figure in the Tuskegee Airmen, the group of African American pilots who fought in World War II. Davis Jr. went on to achieve the rank of general and played a significant role in shaping the future of African American officers in the U.S. military. His legacy remains an inspiration for future generations.

His father, Benjamin O. Davis. Sr. was the first African American Army General.

On this date in 1900, Louis Armstrong, known as “Satchmo,” was born, in New Orleans, Louisiana. He would go on to become one of the most influential figures in jazz history, known for his virtuosic trumpet playing, distinctive voice, and groundbreaking contributions to music.

Armstrong’s career spanned several decades, and he helped transform jazz from a group-based endeavor to a soloist’s art form. His famous recordings, like “What a Wonderful World” and “Stardust,” continue to be celebrated, and his legacy as a cultural icon remains unmatched.

On this date in 1881, the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute (now Tuskegee University) was established in Tuskegee, Alabama. This institution, founded by Booker T. Washington, was a pivotal moment in the history of higher education for African Americans. Tuskegee University became a key institution in providing education and vocational training to African Americans in the post-Reconstruction era, with an emphasis on practical skills that could help them improve their economic standing.

The establishment of Tuskegee and similar institutions represented a major step forward in advancing education and opportunities for African Americans, particularly in the South, during a time when access to education was severely limited for people of color. Tuskegee played a key role in training leaders, educators, and skilled professionals, and it remains one of the most historically significant African American universities.

On this date in 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted, marking the United States’ formal declaration of independence from Great Britain. However, a significant detail often discussed is that a section of the original draft, written by Thomas Jefferson, included a strong condemnation of the slave trade.

This portion criticized King George III for imposing the slave trade on the American colonies, describing it as an “execrable commerce.” However, due to pressure from delegates, especially from southern colonies where slavery was an integral part of the economy, this part was removed from the final version of the document.

The removal reflected the deep divisions within the colonies over the issue of slavery, a topic that would continue to play a central role in American history, leading to the Civil War nearly a century later.

On this date in 1999, the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) celebrated Caribbean Integration with a focus on strengthening regional cooperation and unity. This day marked a significant milestone in the region’s efforts to foster closer economic, social, and political ties among the Caribbean nations.

CARICOM was established in 1973 and, by 1999, the organization was actively working on initiatives such as the Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME), which aimed to promote free trade, labor movement, and the coordination of economic policies across its member states. The July 4th celebration was symbolic of the continuing drive toward deeper integration and a unified Caribbean voice on the global stage.

This integration sought to boost economic stability and enhance the region’s ability to address common challenges like climate change, trade, and sustainable development.

On this date in 1991, the National Civil Rights Museum officially opened at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, marking a significant moment in the history of the Civil Rights Movement. The museum was established to honor the legacy of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., who was assassinated at the Lorraine Motel on April 4, 1968.

The museum showcases the history of the Civil Rights Movement, highlighting the struggles and triumphs of African Americans from the era of slavery to modern times. The Lorraine Motel, which still contains the room where Dr. King stayed, is a central part of the museum and stands as a powerful symbol of the ongoing fight for equality and justice.

Since its opening, the National Civil Rights Museum has been an important educational and cultural landmark, attracting visitors from all over the world to learn about the struggle for civil rights and to honor those who fought for freedom and equality.

On this date in 1972, during its National Convention, the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) adopted an emergency resolution that called for a nationwide boycott of businesses and organizations that were accused of discriminatory practices.

This resolution was in response to ongoing civil rights struggles and was part of the NAACP’s efforts to challenge systemic racism and promote economic justice. The resolution highlighted the importance of creating economic leverage to push for social change, calling for collective action against institutions that perpetuated racial inequality.

This moment is significant in the NAACP’s history of activism, using boycotts and protests as key tools for fighting racial discrimination in various aspects of American life.

On this date in 1970, Asbury Park, New Jersey, was the site of significant rioting, with over one hundred people injured. The unrest was fueled by tensions between the African American community and local authorities, exacerbated by economic disparities, police brutality, and racial inequality in the city. The rioting began after a confrontation between the police and local residents, leading to widespread violence, looting, and property damage.

This event was part of a broader pattern of racial unrest in many U.S. cities during the late 1960s and early 1970s, driven by frustrations over civil rights, poverty, and police treatment of minority communities. The Asbury Park riots were one of the most notable incidents of civil disturbance during that time in New Jersey.

On this date in 1963, Marian Anderson, the renowned African American contralto, and Ralph Bunche, the distinguished diplomat and Nobel Peace Prize laureate, were awarded the first Medals of Freedom by President John F. Kennedy. This prestigious honor, created by President Kennedy, recognized their exceptional contributions to American society.

Marian Anderson made history with her groundbreaking career in classical music and her iconic 1939 performance at the Lincoln Memorial, while Ralph Bunche was honored for his work in diplomacy, particularly his role in mediating peace efforts in the Middle East, which earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1950.

Their awards marked a significant moment in the history of the Medal of Freedom and celebrated their profound impact on the civil rights movement and global peace.

On this date in 1910, Jack Johnson, the first Black heavyweight boxing champion, made history by successfully defending his title against Jim \”The Great White Hope\” Jeffries. Jeffries, who had come out of retirement with the intention of reclaiming the championship \”for the White race,\” was knocked out in the 15th round, solidifying Johnson’s dominance in the ring.

The fight, held in Reno, Nevada, became a significant moment in both sports and social history, as Johnson\’s victory was seen as a challenge to the racial prejudices and tensions of the time. His win brought him both fame and controversy, with many seeing him as a symbol of defiance against racial inequality. The fight was widely publicized and remains one of the most iconic in boxing history.

On July 4, 1881, the Tuskegee Normal School for Colored Teachers was formally established in Tuskegee, Alabama. Founded in a one?room shanty by Booker T. Washington, it began with 30 adult students and a mission to advance vocational education for African Americans. Washington later became principal, pioneering a model that emphasized self?help, racial uplift, and industrial skills—a blueprint for Black advancement during the Jim Crow era. The anniversary date aligned with Independence Day symbolism, linking true educational freedom to national ideals. The institution received coverage in contemporary Black and national newspapers, and is well documented in Tuskegee’s archives and Washington’s memoirs. blackwestchester.com

On this date in 1876, Edward Mitchell Bannister, an acclaimed African American painter, was awarded the gold medal for his painting “Under the Oaks” at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. This was a significant achievement, especially for Bannister, who was one of the few African American artists to gain recognition in a predominantly white field during that era.

The Centennial Exposition was the first official World’s Fair in the United States, celebrating the nation’s 100th anniversary. Bannister’s victory was a major milestone, not only in his career but also in the history of African American contributions to the arts. His work often focused on landscapes and nature, with a particular emphasis on color and light, and his win helped cement his place in American art history.

On this date in 1875, a violent and tragic event occurred in Vicksburg, Mississippi, where White Democrats targeted and killed several Black residents in what has been described as a terrorist attack. This event was part of a larger wave of racial violence and terror during the Reconstruction era, a period following the Civil War when African Americans were fighting for equal rights and political participation.

The attack was a response to the growing political influence of African Americans, especially in the South, where they had gained significant power through voting and holding office. White supremacist groups, like the Ku Klux Klan, had been involved in numerous acts of violence during this time to intimidate and suppress Black political power.

The Vicksburg incident was one of many violent acts during the Redemption era (1870s), when white Democrats sought to regain control of Southern states from Reconstruction Republicans, often through terror, intimidation, and violence. It marked a brutal chapter in the ongoing struggle for racial equality in the United States.

On this date in 1868, the Georgia legislature convened in Atlanta following the end of the Civil War and during the Reconstruction period. This was a significant moment in U.S. history as 34 Black legislators (many of whom were formerly enslaved) joined 186 white legislators in the statehouse. The event marked the first time African Americans were allowed to participate in Georgia’s legislative process, signaling a major shift in the state’s political landscape after the abolition of slavery.

However, the Black legislators faced intense opposition and hostility, and in the following years, their participation in the legislature was gradually diminished due to discriminatory actions such as voter disenfranchisement and the implementation of Jim Crow laws. Despite these setbacks, the 1868 legislature remains a historic achievement during the Reconstruction era.

On this date in 1861, Thaddeus Stevens, a prominent American politician and leader of the Radical Republicans during the Civil War, delivered a powerful speech advocating for the abolition of slavery. Stevens was a strong opponent of slavery and a vocal proponent of civil rights for African Americans.

At this time, the United States was on the brink of the Civil War, and Stevens was a key figure in pushing for the emancipation of enslaved people and ensuring their rights. He later played a pivotal role in the passage of the 13th Amendment (which abolished slavery) and was instrumental in the efforts for Reconstruction following the war.

Stevens’ legacy as a tireless advocate for racial equality and justice is still remembered today as part of his significant contributions to the nation’s history.

On this date in 1845, Mary Edmonia Lewis, also known as Wildfire Lewis, was born. She was a groundbreaking sculptor of African-American and Native American descent, known for her works that explored themes of identity, race, and history.

Edmonia Lewis gained fame in the 19th century for her marble sculptures, including notable pieces such as Forever Free and The Death of Cleopatra. She is considered one of the first African-American women to achieve recognition as a professional sculptor in the United States and abroad. Her work often combined neoclassical styles with elements of African-American and Native American culture, making her a significant figure in both art history and the fight for social justice.

In 1799, New York enacted a gradual emancipation law. By July 4, 1827, all enslaved persons remaining in the state were legally free. This marked the full end of slavery in New York, a major economic and moral milestone in antebellum America. On Independence Day, Black churches and communities held services of prayer and thanksgiving. William Hamilton delivered a keynote at Mother AME Zion Church in Manhattan, declaring, “no more shall negro and slave be synonymous.” Celebrations remained cautious, given fears of white supremacist backlash, and the holiday’s solemn tone reflected both triumph and uncertainty. It stands as a documented legal and cultural turning point, affirmed by historical records like Freedom’s Journal and legislative votes. blackwestchester.com

The American Negro Exposition (Black World’s Fair) opened in Chicago on July 4, 1940, marking the 75th anniversary of Emancipation. President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressed the ceremonial button at his Hyde Park home to illuminate the fairgrounds. Held at the Chicago Coliseum, it showcased 120 exhibits celebrating Black contributions across arts, science, industry, and history. Features included a historical diorama honoring Crispus Attucks and performances by Duke Ellington. Over 250,000 visitors attended throughout its run until September?2. Funding by Congress and the Illinois legislature underscores its primary-source documentation. en.wikipedia.org

Legendary hip-hop group Public Enemy released “Fight the Power” on July 4, 1989, via Motown Records. Commissioned for Spike Lee’s film Do the Right Thing, the song’s release on Independence Day carried added symbolism—transforming a patriotic date into a rallying cry against systemic racism. With samples from civil rights speeches and militant lyrics, it challenged listeners to confront social injustice. Chart performance, archival Motown release records, and numerous scholarly analyses trace its impact on culture and politics. blackwestchester.com

On this date in 1975, Arthur Ashe made history by winning Wimbledon in an unforgettable moment for tennis and sports history. Ashe defeated Jimmy Connors in the final, securing his place as the first African American man to win the prestigious tournament. This victory was particularly significant as it not only marked a personal achievement for Ashe but also symbolized a milestone in the fight for racial equality in sports. Ashe’s win remains one of the most iconic moments in tennis history.

On this date in 1975, racial disturbances erupted in Miami, Florida, as tensions between African American communities and law enforcement escalated. This was part of a broader pattern of unrest that affected several U.S. cities during the 1960s and 1970s, often tied to issues of police brutality, discrimination, economic inequality, and better treatment in cities across the country.

The 1975 Miami riots followed the 1973 shooting of a Black man, and frustrations surrounding racial tensions in the area boiled over. Many residents in the Black community expressed dissatisfaction with the local government and police, particularly after incidents they perceived as injustices or systemic oppression.

While the disturbances on July 4 were part of a larger wave of urban unrest in the 1970s, the events in Miami reflected the need for substantial social and political change. The aftermath helped bring attention to the need for reform, though the issues of racial inequality and police-community relations continued to persist for years.

The 1975 disturbances were a key moment in Miami’s history, influencing later civil rights movements and shaping the city’s ongoing challenges in addressing racial disparities.

On this date in 1966, the National Guard was mobilized in Omaha, Nebraska, following the third consecutive night of violent rioting. The unrest began after tensions over racial discrimination and the shooting of a black man, and it escalated when police responded with force. The riots, part of a larger wave of civil unrest in the U.S. during the 1960s, led to property damage, injuries, and the need for the National Guard to restore order in the city. This event highlighted the deep racial and economic tensions in many urban areas during that period.

On this date in 1899, Anna Arnold Hedgeman was born. She made history as the first woman to serve in the cabinet of a New York City mayor. Hedgeman was a trailblazer in civil rights and political activism. She was appointed as the Director of the Mayor’s Committee on Human Rights under Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. in the 1940s, making significant contributions to advancing racial equality and addressing issues of discrimination in the city.

Her work was integral to social justice movements, and she became a prominent figure in both the civil rights and women’s rights movements. Throughout her career, Hedgeman worked tirelessly to uplift marginalized communities and advocate for equal rights.

On this date in 1892, Andrew Beard, an African American inventor, was granted Patent No. 478,271 for his rotary engine design. His invention aimed to improve the efficiency of engines, particularly in the realm of steam-powered machinery. While Beard is perhaps better known for his patent for the improved railroad car coupler (which was widely adopted in the rail industry), his work on the rotary engine also demonstrated his inventive skills.

Beard’s inventions played an important role in advancing mechanical engineering and improving safety and efficiency in various industries. His patent for the rotary engine, though not as commercially successful as his coupler design, is part of his legacy as an influential inventor.

On this date in 1971, Henry Sampson, an African American inventor, received a patent for his work related to the cellular phone. He is credited with inventing the gamma-electric cell, a technology that was key in the development of the modern cellular phone. Sampson’s invention helped lay the groundwork for the mobile communication systems we use today.

While Martin Cooper of Motorola is often credited with making the first mobile phone call in 1973, Sampson’s contribution was an essential piece of the technological puzzle, particularly in how signals are transmitted wirelessly.

On this date in 2002, Serena Williams made history by defeating her sister Venus Williams in the Wimbledon Women’s Singles Final. Serena won the match in straight sets, 7-6(4), 6-3, claiming her first Grand Slam singles title. This victory was monumental not just for Serena but for the Williams sisters, who had both been dominating the tennis world during that time.

Serena’s win at Wimbledon marked the beginning of her incredible career as one of the greatest tennis players in history. It also highlighted the fierce competition between the two sisters, who would go on to meet each other in many more finals.

On this date in 1971, the legendary jazz musician Louis “Satchmo” Armstrong passed away at the age of 69. Armstrong, one of the most influential figures in the history of jazz, was known for his powerful trumpet playing, distinctive gravelly voice, and his contributions to popularizing jazz around the world. His career spanned five decades, and he recorded iconic songs like “What a Wonderful World,” “Stardust,” and “La Vie En Rose.” His impact on music and culture remains immeasurable, and his legacy continues to inspire artists to this day.

On this date in 1964, Malawi officially proclaimed its independence from British colonial rule. The country, which was previously known as the Nyasaland Protectorate, became a sovereign state with Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda as its first Prime Minister.

Malawi’s independence marked a significant moment in the history of African liberation during the wave of decolonization in the mid-20th century. Dr. Banda played a central role in leading the country to freedom, and he would go on to serve as Malawi’s president from 1966 until his death in 1997.

Independence Day in Malawi remains a major national holiday, celebrating the country’s sovereignty and achievements.

On this date in 1957, Althea Gibson made history by becoming the first African American to win a Wimbledon singles title. She defeated Darlene Hard in the finals, securing a 6-3, 6-2 victory. This win was a monumental achievement, not only in tennis but also in breaking racial barriers in sports.

Gibson’s success at Wimbledon helped pave the way for future African American athletes in tennis and beyond, marking her as a trailblazer. She went on to win another Wimbledon title in 1958 and was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1971.

On this date in 1931, Della Reese was born Delorese Patricia in Detroit, Michigan. She became an iconic jazz vocalist, actress, and television personality. Known for her rich, soulful voice, Reese enjoyed a successful music career, with hits like “Don’t You Know?” and “My Heart Reminds Me.”

She later transitioned into acting, most notably starring in the hit TV series “Touched by an Angel” (1994-2003) alongside Roma Downey. Reese’s career spanned across multiple genres, and she became known for her powerful presence and versatility in both music and acting. She passed away on November 19, 2017, leaving behind a lasting legacy in the entertainment world.

On this date in 1869, Dr. J.D. Harris, an African American physician, ran for lieutenant governor of Virginia on the Republican ticket. Despite his efforts, he was defeated by John Francis Lewis, who received 120,068 votes to Harris’s 99,600.
ENCYCLOPEDIAVIRGINIA.ORG

This election was significant as it was the first in which African American men were eligible to vote in Virginia. The Republican Party, which had been instrumental in the abolition of slavery, nominated Harris to run for lieutenant governor.
EMERGINGCIVILWAR.COM

The election results highlighted the challenges African American candidates faced during the Reconstruction era, even with the legal right to vote. Despite the defeat, Harris’s candidacy was a notable milestone in the political participation of African Americans in the post-Civil War United States.

On this date in 1868, the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution was officially ratified. This amendment is one of the most significant in U.S. history, as it granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including formerly enslaved individuals.

The 14th Amendment also provided equal protection under the law and guaranteed due process for all citizens, fundamentally shaping civil rights in America. It has been instrumental in various landmark Supreme Court rulings and remains a cornerstone of constitutional law, especially in matters related to civil rights, equality, and justice.

On this date in 1854, the South Carolina General Assembly met at Janney’s Hall in Columbia, marking a historic moment. This session included 85 Black representatives and 70 white representatives, making it the first and only time in American history that a legislative body had a Black majority.

In the South Carolina Senate, there were 10 Black and 21 white senators, while in the House of Representatives, there were 75 Black and 49 white members. This remarkable moment occurred during the period of Reconstruction, when newly freed African Americans gained political power, particularly in the southern states. However, due to the end of Reconstruction and the rise of Jim Crow laws, Black political power in the South was systematically dismantled, and this would be the last time Black individuals held a majority in any American legislature.

On this date in 1853, William Wells Brown published Clotel; or, The President’s Daughter, which is widely regarded as the first novel written by an African American.

The novel is a powerful work of fiction that explores the themes of slavery, race, and the complexities of identity in the United States. It tells the story of Clotel, the daughter of Thomas Jefferson and an enslaved woman, highlighting the struggles faced by African Americans in the context of both slavery and racial prejudice.

Clotel is considered a pioneering work in African American literature and a significant milestone in the history of American literature as a whole. Brown’s work is often seen as a form of activism, addressing the moral and social issues of the time.

On this date in 1853, the National Black Convention took place in Rochester, New York, with 140 delegates from nine states. This significant gathering brought together African American leaders, activists, and abolitionists to discuss key issues affecting the Black community, including slavery, civil rights, and education.

The convention was a platform for leaders like Frederick Douglass, who was a key figure in the abolitionist movement and played a crucial role in organizing the event. Discussions centered on promoting equal rights, challenging racial discrimination, and advocating for the abolition of slavery, as well as the upliftment of the Black community.

The Rochester convention represented an important moment in the ongoing fight for equality and justice, highlighting the growing national movement of African Americans seeking to assert their rights in the face of systemic oppression.

testing

On this date in 1906, Satchel Paige, one of baseball’s greatest pitchers, was born. His incredible talent and career in the Negro Leagues made him a legendary figure in American baseball. Known for his powerful arm, showmanship, and longevity, Paige played into his 50s and is often regarded as one of the best pitchers in baseball history.

Paige’s contributions were groundbreaking, as he not only became a star in the Negro Leagues but also broke barriers when he was inducted into Major League Baseball. He made his MLB debut with the Cleveland Indians at age 42, and his legacy continues to inspire players today.

On this date in 1972, Lisa Leslie was born in Compton, California. She is widely regarded as one of the greatest women’s basketball players of all time. Leslie was a dominant force in the WNBA, where she played her entire career with the Los Angeles Sparks.

She made history by being the first woman to dunk in a WNBA game and was a four-time WNBA champion. In addition to her success in the WNBA, she also had an impressive international career, representing the U.S. in multiple Olympic Games and winning four Olympic gold medals.

Her achievements both on and off the court have made her an icon in women’s sports.

On this date in 1940, Aubrey F. Lowe, a prominent financial analyst from Suffolk, Virginia, was born. His contributions to the field of finance are notable, and he has been recognized for his expertise and impact on financial strategies.

ON this date in 1915, Margaret Walker, the famous American writer, was born in Birmingham, Alabama. She is best known for her novel “Jubilee”, which tells the story of the life of a slave and is based on the experiences of her great-grandmother.

Margaret Walker was an important figure in the Harlem Renaissance and African American literature, contributing to the exploration of African American history and culture in her works. Her poetry and prose often centered on themes of race, identity, and the African American experience.

Her legacy remains influential, particularly in the realm of African American literature and social activism.

On this date in 2001, Venus Williams defended her Wimbledon title, winning her second consecutive championship by defeating Justine Henin in the final 6–1, 3–6, 6–0. This victory cemented her dominance on grass courts and further solidified her status as one of the top players in women’s tennis.

At the time, Venus was at the peak of her career, known for her powerful serve, athleticism, and aggressive playing style. This win made her the first woman since Steffi Graf (1995–1996) to win back-to-back Wimbledon titles. Her triumph at Wimbledon 2001 was part of her era of dominance alongside her sister, Serena Williams, who would later go on to become her greatest rival and doubles partner.

On this date in 1965, the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) officially elected Roy Wilkins as its new Executive Director.

Wilkins had been actively involved with the NAACP since the 1930s and served as the organization’s assistant secretary before succeeding James Farmer as the leader of the civil rights group. His leadership focused on legal challenges to segregation, voting rights advocacy, and broader civil rights reforms.

Under Wilkins’ guidance, the NAACP played a crucial role in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, both of which were landmark achievements in the fight for racial equality in the United States. He remained in the position until 1977, leaving behind a lasting legacy in the civil rights movement.

On this date in 1943, Faye Wattleton was born. She is a notable activist, nurse, and the first African American president of Planned Parenthood. Wattleton served as the organization’s leader from 1978 to 1992, becoming the first woman to hold the position since its founding.

She was a strong advocate for women’s reproductive rights, expanding access to healthcare, and fighting for policies that supported women’s autonomy. Under her leadership, Planned Parenthood grew significantly, and she played a key role in shaping the national conversation on reproductive freedom.

Her activism and leadership have made a lasting impact on public health and women’s rights in the U.S.

On this date in 1914, Billy Eckstine was born, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He was a groundbreaking jazz and pop singer, bandleader, and musician known for his deep, smooth baritone voice.

Eckstine gained prominence in the 1940s with his big band, which helped shape the bebop movement and featured legendary musicians like Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, and Miles Davis. He later enjoyed a successful solo career with hits like “I Apologize”, “My Foolish Heart”, and “Cottage for Sale”.

As one of the first Black male singers to achieve mainstream success, he paved the way for future generations of jazz and R&B artists. His influence remains strong in the world of jazz and popular music. ??

On this date in 1876, the Hamburg Massacre took place in Hamburg, South Carolina, when a white supremacist mob attacked a group of Black Republican militiamen, killing five Black men. This violent act was part of a broader campaign of racial terror during the Reconstruction era, aimed at suppressing Black political power and voter participation.

The attack began when white men, including former Confederate soldiers and Democratic Party supporters, challenged the presence of an all-Black militia. After a confrontation, a white mob—led by “Red Shirts” (a white supremacist paramilitary group)—escalated the violence, capturing and executing Black militia members.

The massacre was a precursor to the violent suppression of Black political rights in the South, paving the way for Jim Crow laws and disenfranchisement. Despite national attention, little justice was served for the victims, and the event remains a key moment in U.S. history reflecting the struggles of Reconstruction and racial injustice.

On this date in 1870, Governor William Woods Holden of North Carolina declared Caswell County in a state of insurrection due to violent resistance against Reconstruction efforts.

This action was part of what became known as the Kirk-Holden War, a response to the activities of the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups terrorizing Black citizens and Republican officials. Governor Holden deployed Colonel George W. Kirk and his militia to suppress the unrest, leading to the arrest of several individuals.

However, Holden’s actions were controversial, and after Democrats regained control of the state legislature, he was impeached and removed from office in 1871—making him the first U.S. governor to be removed through impeachment.

On this date in 1805, Bill Richmond, the son of formerly enslaved parents, made history as the first African American to gain recognition as a prizefighter. He knocked out Jack Holmes in England, solidifying his reputation as a skilled and strategic boxer.

Born in 1763 in Staten Island, New York, Richmond moved to England, where he built a successful boxing career despite racial barriers. Known for his agility and technical skill, he fought some of the top fighters of his era and later became a respected trainer.

His legacy paved the way for future Black athletes in combat sports, making him a key figure in boxing history. ?

On this date in 1868, Francis L. Cardozo was installed as Secretary of State of South Carolina, making him the first Black person to hold a statewide cabinet position in the United States.

Cardozo was a significant figure during the Reconstruction era. He was highly educated, having studied at the University of Glasgow and in London before returning to the U.S. to advocate for education and civil rights. After serving as Secretary of State, he later became State Treasurer of South Carolina, where he worked to reform financial corruption.

On this date in 1979, Dr. Walter E. Massey was appointed as the director of Argonne National Laboratory, making him the first African American to hold this position. Argonne, one of the U.S. Department of Energy’s premier research facilities, focuses on cutting-edge scientific research in energy, materials science, and national security.

Dr. Massey, a physicist, had an impressive career in academia, government, and industry. Before leading Argonne, he conducted research in theoretical physics and worked at various institutions. Later in his career, he became the president of Morehouse College and held leadership roles in organizations like the National Science Foundation and Bank of America.

On this date in 1955, E. Frederic Morrow became the first Black person to hold an executive position in the White House. He served as an Administrative Officer for Special Projects under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. His role involved advising on civil rights issues and helping shape policy discussions at a crucial time in American history.

Morrow later documented his experiences in the book Black Man in the White House (1963), offering insights into the challenges he faced as a trailblazer in the federal government.

On this date in 1927, Attorney William T. Francis was appointed U.S. Minister to Liberia by President Calvin Coolidge. This was a significant appointment, as Francis was an African American lawyer and civil rights advocate from Minnesota.

His tenure in Liberia was notable for his efforts to address issues of forced labor and human rights violations. Unfortunately, while in Liberia, he contracted yellow fever and passed away in 1929. His work, however, remains an important part of both U.S. diplomatic history and African American history.

On this date in 1901, Jester Hairston was born. He was an American composer, songwriter, choral conductor, and actor. He is best known for his work in spirituals and gospel music, as well as for his acting roles in film and television. One of his most famous compositions is Amen, which was featured in the film Lilies of the Field (1963), starring Sidney Poitier.

He also had a long career in Hollywood, often serving as a composer and arranger for film soundtracks, and he appeared in several TV shows, including Amen (1986–1991), in which he played Rolly Forbes and for his work on Amos ‘n’ Andy.

On this date in 1863, the siege of Port Hudson was a significant moment in the Civil War. After a long and grueling siege that lasted from May 22 to July 9, 1863, Union forces, under General Nathaniel P. Banks, finally forced the surrender of the Confederate garrison at Port Hudson, Louisiana. This victory, coupled with the fall of Vicksburg just days earlier on July 4, gave the Union full control of the Mississippi River, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two and disrupting their supply lines.

One of the most remarkable aspects of the siege was the role played by African American troops. Eight Black regiments participated, marking one of the first times that Black soldiers saw extensive combat in the war. The 1st and 3rd Louisiana Native Guard, composed mainly of formerly enslaved and free Black men, demonstrated incredible bravery in direct assaults against Confederate defenses, proving their combat effectiveness and challenging racist assumptions of the time.

Their actions at Port Hudson helped pave the way for broader acceptance of Black soldiers in the Union Army, leading to the formation of more United States Colored Troops (USCT) regiments. It was a turning point in the war, both strategically and socially.

On this date in 1972 Democratic National Convention opened, in Miami Beach, Florida. It was a historic convention, with Black delegates making up 15% of the total—a reflection of the increasing influence of African Americans in the Democratic Party following the civil rights movement.

During the nomination process, Senator George S. McGovern of South Dakota won the Democratic nomination for President of the United States, defeating several rivals, including former Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Senator Henry M. “Scoop” Jackson, and Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm of New York.

Shirley Chisholm, the first Black woman to run for a major party’s presidential nomination, made history with her campaign. She received 151.95 delegate votes out of over 2,000 ballots on the first roll call—an impressive achievement for a candidate who faced both racial and gender barriers.

McGovern went on to select Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, though Eagleton was later replaced by Sargent Shriver after revelations about his mental health treatment. In the general election, McGovern lost in a landslide to President Richard Nixon.

On this date in 1962, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested during a protest in Albany, Georgia, as part of the Albany Movement, a campaign to end racial segregation and discrimination in the city. The movement, which began in late 1961, was led by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), the NAACP, and local Black leaders.

Dr. King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) joined the movement to support its efforts. However, Albany police chief Laurie Pritchett employed a strategy of mass arrests without violence, preventing the kind of dramatic confrontations that often drew national attention. This tactic made it difficult for the movement to gain widespread sympathy and pressure federal intervention.

King’s arrest was part of multiple detentions in Albany, and he was eventually released from jail after a fine was paid anonymously. The Albany Movement was considered a learning experience for King, shaping his later, more successful strategies in Birmingham (1963) and Selma (1965).

On this date in 1910, First Black heavyweight champion, Jack Johnson successfully defended his heavy weight title against former champion James “The Great White Hope” Jeffries, who had come out of retirement “to win back the title for the White race,” in what was called the “Fight of the Century.” The bout took place in Reno, Nevada, and ended in the 15th round when Jeffries’ corner threw in the towel.

Jack Johnson’s victory was a significant moment in sports and racial history, as it shattered the idea that white fighters were superior and sparked both celebration and racial tensions across the U.S. His dominance in the ring and defiance of societal norms made him a controversial but legendary figure in boxing history.

ON this date in 1943, Arthur Ashe was born in Richmond, Virginia. He became a legendary tennis player, known for being the first Black man to win singles titles at Wimbledon, the US Open, and the Australian Open. In 1963, Twenty-year-old Arthur Ashe becomes the first African-American to make the U.S. Davis Cup tennis team. Beyond his achievements on the court, Ashe was a passionate advocate for civil rights, social justice, and HIV/AIDS awareness. His legacy continues to inspire athletes and activists around the world.

On this date in 1941, Ferdinand “Jelly Roll” Morton, one of the most influential early jazz pianists and composers, passed away, at the age of 56 in Los Angeles. Morton was a key figure in the development of jazz, particularly known for blending ragtime, blues, and improvisation into a more structured and sophisticated form of the genre. His compositions, such as King Porter Stomp, Black Bottom Stomp, and Jelly Roll Blues, became jazz standards.

Despite his significant contributions to jazz, he struggled in his later years, as swing music overshadowed his earlier New Orleans-style jazz. However, his legacy was later revived, and he is now recognized as one of the greatest jazz pioneers of all time.

On this date in 1927, David Norman Dinkins was born. He later became a prominent American politician and served as the 106th Mayor of New York City from 1990 to 1993 —the city’s first African American mayor. Before that, he was active in New York politics, serving as Manhattan Borough President and a member of the New York State Assembly.

His tenure as mayor was marked by efforts to improve race relations, reduce crime, and revitalize the city, though he faced significant challenges, including economic struggles and high crime rates.

On this date in 1893, Dr. Daniel Hale Williams, a pioneering African American surgeon, performed the first successful open-heart surgeries.

James Cornish, a young man who had been stabbed in the chest, was brought to Provident Hospital —a hospital founded by Dr. Williams himself in Chicago. Without modern surgical tools, X-rays, or antibiotics, Dr. Williams operated directly on Cornish’s pericardium (the sac surrounding the heart) to repair the wound. Incredibly, Cornish survived and recovered, living for several more years after the surgery.

Dr. Williams’ achievement was groundbreaking, as heart surgery was considered nearly impossible at the time. His work helped lay the foundation for future advancements in cardiac surgery and opened doors for Black medical professionals in the U.S.

On this date in 1891, African American jockey William “Monk” Overton achieved a remarkable feat by winning six consecutive horse races at Washington Park Race Track in Chicago. The day’s program comprised seven races; Overton secured victories in the first race, did not have a mount in the second, and then triumphed in the remaining five races.
TROVE.NLA.GOV.AU

This accomplishment was unprecedented in American horse racing at the time. Overton’s record was later matched by fellow African American jockey Jimmy Lee in 1907, who also won six straight races at Churchill Downs in Louisville.
BLACKFACTS.COM

Beyond this extraordinary day, Overton had a distinguished career. He participated in eight Kentucky Derbies and, in 1897, rode the filly Etta to victory in the Kentucky Oaks.
AMERICANCLASSICPEDIGREES.COM

Overton’s achievements highlight the significant contributions of African American jockeys to the sport during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

On this date in 1875, Mary McLeod Bethune was born in Mayesville, South Carolina. She was a pioneering educator, civil rights leader, and founder of Bethune-Cookman University. She played a key role in advocating for African American education and women’s rights, serving as an advisor to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and founding the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW).

Her legacy continues today as a symbol of empowerment, education, and equality.

On this date in 1818, Cyrus Tiffany: African American heroism was not daunted by Captain Oliver H. Perry’s opinion of African American sailors. An African American sailor, Cyrus Tiffany, was instrumental in protecting the life of Perry. When the USS Lawrence, the flagship of the American navy on Lake Erie, was sunk during the battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813, Captain Oliver Hazard Perry was forced to transfer to the USS Niagara. During this perilous moment, Cyrus Tiffany, an African American sailor and Perry’s personal attendant, played a crucial role in ensuring the captain’s safety. Despite widespread prejudices against African American sailors at the time, Tiffany’s bravery and quick action contributed to Perry’s survival and the eventual American victory over the British fleet.

Tiffany’s actions highlight the significant yet often overlooked contributions of African Americans in naval warfare, particularly during the War of 1812. His heroism serves as a testament to the courage and dedication of Black sailors who fought for a country that did not always recognize their worth.

On this date in 1775, Horatio Gates, serving as George Washington’s adjutant general, issued an order prohibiting Black men—both free and enslaved—from enlisting in the Continental Army. This decision reflected the prevailing racial attitudes of the time and concerns among some American leaders about arming Black individuals.

However, this exclusion did not last long. As the war progressed and the need for manpower grew, policies changed. By 1776, the Continental Army began allowing free Black men to serve. Eventually, even some enslaved individuals were promised freedom in exchange for military service, particularly in states like Rhode Island, which formed an all-Black regiment, the First Rhode Island Regiment.

Arthur Ashe was born on July 10, 1943, in Richmond, Virginia. He broke numerous racial barriers in tennis, becoming the first Black man to win the singles titles at the US Open (1968), Australian Open (1970), and Wimbledon (1975). In 1963, Ashe became the first African American selected for the U.S. Davis Cup team, contributing to multiple victories over his decade-long participation. ?

Beyond his athletic achievements, Ashe was a dedicated activist. He opposed apartheid in South Africa, advocated for education and inner-city youth programs, and raised awareness about HIV/AIDS after contracting the virus from a blood transfusion during heart surgery. He publicly disclosed his diagnosis in 1992 and passed away from AIDS-related pneumonia on February 6, 1993, at the age of 49. ?Encyclopedia Britannica

Ashe’s legacy endures through the Arthur Ashe Stadium in New York, the largest tennis stadium in the world, and the Arthur Ashe Foundation, which continues his work in health and social justice.?

ON this date in 1915, Mifflin Wistar Gibbs, an important figure in the African American community, died. Gibbs was born in 1823 in Philadelphia, and he was a businessman, civil rights advocate, and the first African American to serve on the city council of Little Rock, Arkansas. He was known for his involvement in the abolitionist movement, specifically in the Underground Railroad and with Frederick Douglass and his work in advancing the rights of African Americans during the 19th century.

In addition to his political contributions, Gibbs was also a clothing retailer, the publisher of the first African American newspaper in California, Mirror of the Times, the first African American elected municipal judge, and a U.S. consul to Madagascar. Gibbs was also a prominent voice in both the African American and wider American communities. His legacy remains significant in the history of African American civil rights.

On this date in 1954, the first White Citizens’ Council (WCC) was established in Indianola, Mississippi. This organization was created by white segregationists in response to the U.S. Supreme Court’s landmark ruling in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

The White Citizens’ Councils, often referred to as the “uptown Klan,” aimed to resist racial integration through economic and political pressure rather than outright violence. They used tactics such as firing Black workers who supported desegregation, denying loans to Black business owners, and lobbying for segregationist policies. The movement quickly spread throughout the South, influencing local and state governments to resist civil rights advancements.

On this date in 1905, W.E.B. Du Bois and a group of like-minded African American activists founded the Niagara Movement. This was a significant civil rights organization that aimed to challenge the prevailing segregation and disenfranchisement of African Americans in the U.S. The movement advocated for political, economic, and social equality, as well as the protection of civil rights for Black Americans.

The Niagara Movement was an important precursor to the later formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Led by prominent figures like W.E.B. Du Bois and William Monroe Trotter, the movement was a direct response to the prevailing racial discrimination and the limitations of the accommodationist approach advocated by figures like Booker T. Washington. The delegates gathered near Niagara Falls from 14 states to call for full civil rights, the abolition of racial segregation, and the demand for political, educational, voting rights, legal justice, and social equality for African Americans. The movement’s focus on equal rights and its stand against racial injustice were revolutionary, pushing back against the more gradualist approaches of the time and calling for immediate action toward racial equality.

Du Bois was a key figure in the movement, and his leadership and ideas greatly influenced the direction of civil rights advocacy in the early 20th century.

On this date in 1925, Mattiwilda Dobbs was born. She was an influential African American soprano opera singer, known for breaking barriers in the classical music world. Dobbs made history as one of the first African American women to have a successful career in opera, performing with major opera companies in the United States and Europe. She was known for her powerful voice and her ability to perform a wide range of roles. She made significant contributions to opera, breaking racial barriers in the mid-20th century. Her debut at La Scala in Milan in 1953 and her U.S. debut in 1955 with the San Francisco Opera marked key milestones in her career.

Her performances were celebrated not only for her vocal skill but also for her ability to bring depth to the roles she portrayed. Mattiwilda Dobbs was a trailblazer for Black artists in opera during a time when racial discrimination was prevalent, especially in the classical music world.

On this date in 1766, Olaudah Equiano, an African man who had been enslaved, purchased his freedom. Equiano had been born in what is now Nigeria, kidnapped at a young age, and sold into slavery. He later bought his freedom in England after years of working as a sailor and merchant. After gaining his freedom, Equiano became a prominent abolitionist, writing his autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, which played a key role in the abolition movement in Britain. His story is a powerful testament to his resilience and determination.

On this date in 1949, F.M. Jones was granted Patent No. 2,475,841 for an air conditioning unit. This patent was for an invention relating to a portable or movable air conditioning unit, designed to improve cooling and humidity control. The system was likely aimed at providing a more efficient and flexible solution for air conditioning in residential and commercial settings at the time.

On this date in 1980, John W. Davis dies at the age of 92 in Englewood, New Jersey. John W. Davis was a notable civil rights activist and an influential figure in education, particularly in West Virginia. He served as president of West Virginia State College (now West Virginia State University) for many years, where he made significant contributions to the development of the college and the education of African American students during a time of racial segregation and inequality. His work in the civil rights movement also impacted the broader social and political landscape. His death marked the loss of an important figure in both the civil rights and educational communities.

On this date in 1967, racial violence erupted in Newark, New Jersey, marking one of the most significant riots during the period of civil unrest in the United States in the 1960s. The unrest began after a routine police arrest of a Black man, John W. Smith, who was reportedly beaten by officers, leading to anger and frustration in the Black community over systemic racism, police brutality, and economic inequality.

The situation escalated quickly, and over the next several days, protests turned into violent riots. There were widespread looting, arson, and clashes between police and residents. The National Guard was eventually called in to restore order. By the time the riots subsided on July 17, 1967, more than 26 people had been killed, hundreds injured, and substantial property damage had occurred, with over 1,000 people arrested.

The Newark riots were part of a larger wave of urban unrest in the 1960s, which included riots in cities like Detroit and Watts, and were driven by the frustration of Black Americans with persistent racial discrimination and poor living conditions. The events had a profound impact on the city of Newark and the national conversation about race relations, poverty, and police violence.

On this date in 1966, the city of Chicago experienced a race riot that was part of a larger wave of unrest in American cities during the 1960s. The riot was triggered by a combination of racial tensions, economic inequality, and the demands of the civil rights movement. It took place in the predominantly Black neighborhood of the West Side, especially around the 16th Street area.

The unrest began after a peaceful march led by Martin Luther King Jr. was met with opposition and violence. King had come to Chicago to draw attention to housing discrimination, poor living conditions, and systemic racism in the city’s housing market. The march was intended to protest the segregated housing practices in Chicago, but it was met with hostility by some white residents who were resistant to the idea of integration. This hostility quickly escalated into a riot.

The violence included clashes between the police and protesters, looting, and property damage. The riot lasted for several days, and the National Guard was eventually called in to help restore order. The event marked a significant moment in the civil rights struggle, highlighting the deep racial divides in northern cities and the growing frustration within the Black community over both de jure (legal) and de facto (social) segregation.

The 1966 race riot in Chicago was one of many incidents across the country during that time, reflecting broader national issues of civil rights, poverty, and inequality.

On this date in 1963, the National Guard was deployed to impose limited martial law in Cambridge, Maryland, following violent clashes between demonstrators and white segregationists. This event was part of the broader Civil Rights Movement, where African Americans and their allies were actively protesting segregation and fighting for equal rights across the United States. The situation in Cambridge had escalated after tensions between black activists and white supremacist groups resulted in violent confrontations, leading to the intervention of the National Guard to restore order.

The Cambridge riots were one of many flashpoints during this era, highlighting the deep racial divisions in the country and the ongoing struggle for civil rights.

On this date in 1951, Governor Adlai Stevenson of Illinois called out the National Guard to restore order in Cicero, Illinois, following violent riots. A white mob of around 3,500 people had gathered in an attempt to prevent a Black family, the Murrays, from moving into an all-white neighborhood. The family had rented an apartment in the area, and their move sparked outrage among the white residents. The violence escalated to the point where the National Guard had to be deployed to protect the family and restore peace.

This event was one of the many instances of racial tension and violence that were common during the mid-20th century, as African Americans sought to challenge segregation and gain equal rights, especially in housing. It highlighted the deep resistance to integration in certain communities and the lengths to which people would go to preserve racial segregation.

On this date in 1949, Patent No. 2475842, was granted to F. M. Jones for a starter generator. This patent relates to a device that functions both as a starter motor and a generator in a single unit. Typically used in applications like aircraft or other vehicles, the starter generator is designed to start an engine and, once the engine is running, it also generates electricity to power various systems of the vehicle.

On this date in 1937, Bill Cosby was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He became widely known as a comedian, actor, and producer, particularly for his role in the iconic TV show The Cosby Show. Over the years, he became a prominent figure in entertainment, but his legacy has become highly controversial in light of serious allegations and convictions related to sexual assault. Despite the legal issues, Cosby’s influence on comedy and television remains significant in popular culture.

On this date in 1936, Rose McClendon, an influential African-American actress and founder of the Negro People’s Theatre, passed away. McClendon was a prominent figure in the Harlem Renaissance, a movement that celebrated African-American culture and arts during the early 20th century. She was known for her work in theater, particularly for her performances in plays that dealt with racial and social issues, and she played a key role in promoting African-American theatrical productions.

Her contributions to the theater world helped pave the way for future generations of black actors and playwrights, making her a significant figure in the history of American theater.

On this date in 1926, Beah Richards, born Beulah Elizabeth Richardson in Vicksburg, Mississippi, was an acclaimed American actress, poet, playwright, and activist. She began her acting career in the 1950s, initially performing on stage before transitioning to film and television.

Richards is perhaps best known for her role as Mrs. Mary Prentice in the 1967 film Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner, for which she received Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress. She also appeared in notable films such as In the Heat of the Night (1967), The Great White Hope (1970), and Beloved (1998).

In addition to her film career, Richards had a distinguished stage presence, earning a Tony Award nomination for her performance in the 1965 production of The Amen Corner. Her television appearances included roles on series like Frank’s Place and The Practice, for which she won two Primetime Emmy Awards.

Beyond her acting career, Richards was a poet and playwright. Her first play, One Is a Crowd, addressed issues of racial segregation and was performed in 1951. She was also involved in political activism, co-founding the civil rights organization Sojourners for Peace and Justice.

Richards passed away on September 14, 2000, in Vicksburg, Mississippi, from emphysema, just days after winning her second Emmy Award. Her legacy continues to inspire many in the arts and civil rights movements.

On this date in 1887, Mound Bayou was founded, by Isaiah Montgomery and his fellow freedmen. Isaiah Montgomery was a key figure in the establishment of the town, which became one of the first successful all-African American towns in the United States. It was located in the Mississippi Delta and aimed to provide African Americans with a community where they could live independently and manage their own affairs. Mound Bayou played an important role in the history of African American self-sufficiency during the post-Reconstruction era.

On this date in 1972, during the Democratic National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida, Shirley Chisholm made history by becoming the first African American woman to seek the presidential nomination of a major political party. She received 151.95 delegate votes on the first ballot, placing her fourth among the candidates.
EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG

Chisholm’s campaign was groundbreaking, as she was the first Black woman to run for the Democratic nomination. Her slogan, “Unbought and Unbossed,” reflected her commitment to representing marginalized communities.
NMAAHC.SI.EDU

Despite facing significant challenges, including limited campaign funding and resistance from some male colleagues, Chisholm’s candidacy inspired many and paved the way for future generations of women and minorities in politics.
WOMENSHISTORY.ORG

On this date in 1972, the Bureau of Census report from this date, highlighted several significant socio-economic disparities between Black and white populations in the United States. It showed that in 1971, the unemployment rate for Black Americans was notably higher at 9.9% compared to 5.4% for whites, underscoring the economic challenges faced by Black communities during that time.

Additionally, the report revealed that a growing proportion of Black families were headed by women, with 31.8% of Black families falling into this category in 1971. This was an increase from 28% in 1970, suggesting a shift in family structures within the Black community. This could have reflected both socio-economic factors and broader social changes, including economic pressures, cultural shifts, and evolving gender roles.

These statistics provide a snapshot of the racial and economic inequalities that were prevalent in the U.S. during the early 1970s.

On this date in 1965, Thurgood Marshall was appointed as the first Black solicitor general of the United States. He served as Solicitor General under President Lyndon B. Johnson. Marshall was an important figure in American history, known for his work as a civil rights lawyer and his groundbreaking role as the first African American Supreme Court justice, a position he would later take up in 1967. Before becoming Solicitor General, he had a significant legal career, including arguing landmark cases such as Brown v. Board of Education before the U.S. Supreme Court, which led to the desegregation of public schools.

On this date in 1919, during the “Red Summer” of 1919 was a period of intense racial violence and unrest in the United States, where race riots broke out in various cities across the country, largely in response to racial tensions, competition for jobs, and the aftermath of World War I. The events in Longview and Gregg counties in Texas were part of this larger wave of violence.

On July 13, 1919, the Longview race riot occurred after a white man was killed, allegedly by a Black man, which led to violence. White mobs targeted Black residents and businesses, resulting in deaths, property destruction, and general chaos. The local government responded by declaring martial law, hoping to restore order. It is believed that at least one person died, though some reports indicate the death toll may have been higher.

This was one of the 26 major riots that occurred during the Red Summer of 1919, highlighting the racial tensions in the post-war United States. The summer saw violent clashes, often sparked by rumors, and in many cases, white mobs attacking Black communities. It was a significant moment in the ongoing struggle for racial justice during the early 20th century.

On this date in 1868, the Alabama Legislature convened in Montgomery, marking a significant moment in American history. This was the first legislative session after the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, with a notable composition: 26 African American legislators and 106 white legislators. The inclusion of Black lawmakers was a result of the Reconstruction period, which sought to integrate freed slaves into society and politics, following the passage of the 14th and 15th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution.

This session was a significant step toward political and social equality for African Americans, but it also faced strong opposition from white Southerners. The era would eventually give way to the Jim Crow laws, which sought to disenfranchise Black voters and strip away the civil rights gains made during Reconstruction. Despite this, the 1868 Alabama legislature was a notable moment in the struggle for racial equality in America.

On this date in 1868, Oscar J. Dunn, a former slave, formally installed as lieutenant governor of Louisiana, the highest elective officer held to date by an American Black. Antoine Dubuclet was installed as state treasurer.

Oscar J. Dunn was a remarkable figure in American history, particularly in the Reconstruction era. His installation as lieutenant governor of Louisiana marked a major achievement for Black Americans during a time of considerable racial tension and change. Dunn was born a slave but rose to prominence in New Orleans, later becoming an influential political figure after the Civil War.

Antoine Dubuclet, who was installed as state treasurer of Louisiana alongside Dunn, was another significant figure. Dubuclet was a former enslaved person who also became successful and prominent in post-war Louisiana politics.

Their roles demonstrated the expanding political power of Black Americans during Reconstruction, even though that progress faced significant resistance in the years that followed.

On this date in 1863, the New York Draft Riots of 1863 were a violent and tragic expression of racial and class tensions. The riots erupted due to growing resentment over the Civil War draft, which many working-class white men saw as unfair, especially since wealthy individuals could pay for substitutes to take their place. This led to anger at both the government and African Americans, whom many blamed for the war and saw as potential competition for jobs, particularly as free Blacks were being recruited into the Union Army.

The rioters primarily targeted Black communities, with devastating results. African Americans were brutally attacked, lynched, and many homes and businesses were destroyed. It’s estimated that over 100 people were killed during the riot, with the majority of victims being Black. The rioting lasted for several days before authorities were able to restore order, but the social and racial divisions exposed by the violence had long-lasting effects.

The New York Draft Riots highlighted the deep racial and economic divisions within the country, and they remain a stark reminder of the challenges in the fight for racial equality during the Civil War era.

On this date in 1863, the “Enrollment Act” (mandatory draft) takes effect, with exemption for the wealthy, which led to summer draft riots in New York and other major northern cities (Newark & Jersey City, New Jersey; Toledo, Ohio; Evansville, Illinois and Boston, Massachusetts).

The Enrollment Act of 1863, also known as the Conscription Act, was a pivotal piece of legislation during the American Civil War. It authorized the federal government to draft men into military service, initially targeting men between the ages of 20 and 45. However, the act allowed wealthier individuals to pay $300 (equivalent to a significant sum at the time) to avoid service, which created a severe disparity. This led to resentment, particularly among the working class and the poor, who were disproportionately affected by the draft.

In New York City, the most notable and violent riots occurred in July 1863. The New York City Draft Riots were fueled by frustration with the draft system, racial tensions, and economic hardships. For several days, the city descended into chaos, with protesters attacking draft offices, police stations, and African American neighborhoods. The riots were brutally suppressed by the military, resulting in hundreds of deaths and injuries. Other cities, including Newark, Jersey City, and Toledo, also saw instances of unrest, although none reached the scale of the violence in New York.

The Enrollment Act marked a significant moment in Civil War history, not only because of the draft but also because it highlighted the deep divisions within Northern society.

On this date in 1863, during the Civil War era in the United States, a violent mob of white rioters destroyed the Colored Orphan Asylum in New York City. This incident took place during the New York City Draft Riots, which were sparked by the implementation of a draft to enlist men for the Union Army. Many working-class white men, particularly Irish immigrants, were angry at being drafted and also resentful of black people, whom they blamed for taking jobs.

The riot, which lasted several days, was marked by extreme violence. The mob attacked black neighborhoods, businesses, and institutions. The Colored Orphan Asylum, which housed around 230 African American children, was set on fire and looted. Fortunately, most of the children were safely evacuated before the destruction.

This tragic event is a stark reminder of the racial tensions and unrest that existed in Northern cities during the Civil War, despite the Union’s fight against slavery. The incident also highlighted the vulnerability of African American institutions and the deeply entrenched racism in society at the time.

On this date in 1787, the Continental Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance, which effectively excluded slavery from the Northwest Territory. This ordinance created a framework for governing the territory that would later become the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. It established that “there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory,” marking a significant step toward limiting the expansion of slavery in the United States. This was an important milestone in the nation’s evolving stance on slavery.

On this date in 1951, the George Washington Carver National Monument, located in Joplin, Missouri, was established to honor the life and legacy of George Washington Carver, a prominent agricultural scientist and inventor. On July 14, 1951, it was officially presented as a National Monument, recognizing Carver’s contributions to agriculture, especially his development of crop rotation techniques and his work with peanuts, which helped improve the livelihoods of many farmers.

The monument preserves Carver’s childhood home and the surrounding area where he grew up, providing visitors with insight into his early life and the groundbreaking work he did. It also serves as an educational center and museum dedicated to his legacy in both science and social advocacy.

On this date in 1914, Marcus Garvey’s return to Jamaica marked the beginning of a transformative period for both him and the global Black community. After his extensive travels through Central America and Europe, Garvey arrived back in Jamaica with a vision that would ignite a powerful movement. On July 19, just five days after his arrival, he founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).

The UNIA aimed to uplift people of African descent worldwide, advocating for unity, pride, and self-determination. Garvey’s movement was grounded in the belief that Black people should have their own independent institutions, separate from the oppressive systems imposed by colonial powers. The UNIA grew rapidly, becoming the largest independent Black organization of its time, with millions of members spanning across the Americas, the Caribbean, and beyond.

Through his leadership and the platform provided by the UNIA, Garvey became a powerful voice for Pan-Africanism, encouraging pride in African heritage and pushing for economic and political empowerment. His vision also extended to the creation of a powerful Black nation, with the “Back to Africa” movement gaining traction as a key part of his ideology.

The UNIA’s impact reached far beyond its official activities, shaping the discourse on race, identity, and self-reliance for generations to come.

On this date in 1948, during the Democratic National Convention, the Alabama and Mississippi delegations walked out in protest after the adoption of a “strong” civil rights plank in the party platform. This event was part of the larger political conflict surrounding civil rights in the United States during that period. The delegates from these two Southern states were against the civil rights measures, which included calls for anti-lynching laws, the end of segregation, and voting rights for African Americans. The walkout was a significant moment in the history of the Democratic Party, highlighting the tension between its Northern and Southern factions over racial issues. This ultimately led to the formation of the Dixiecrat Party, also known as the States’ Rights Democratic Party, which nominated Strom Thurmond for president in the 1948 election.

On this date in 1941, Maulana Karenga, originally named Ronald Everett, was born. He is best known as the founder of Kwanzaa, a week-long celebration of African heritage and culture observed from December 26 to January 1. Karenga is also a prominent scholar, activist, and professor, particularly in the fields of African American studies and Black cultural history. His work has had a significant impact on promoting Afrocentric identity and pride.

On this date in 1940, Peggy Jones, also known as Lady Bo, was indeed a trailblazer as Bo Diddley’s original girl guitar player. She made a significant impact in rock & roll by breaking barriers for women in the genre, especially at a time when female guitarists were rare. Her work with Bo Diddley helped shape the sound of early rock and roll. She’s definitely a key figure in the history of music!

On this date in 1891, inventor J. Standard (sometimes referred to as John Standard) was awarded a patent US455891A for his non-electrical refrigerator design. This refrigerator used an ice chamber for cooling, making it an important step in the development of refrigeration technology. His design was an improvement over earlier models and contributed to the evolution of refrigeration before the widespread use of electric-powered refrigerators.

It was one of the early innovations in household cooling technology, paving the way for future advances in refrigeration.

On this date in 1885, Sara E. Goode was awarded a patent 322,177 for the cabinet bed. The cabinet bed was an innovative piece of furniture designed to save space. It was a combination of a bed and a cabinet, allowing the bed to be hidden away inside a compact piece of furniture when not in use, making it especially useful in small living spaces. Goode is one of the first African American women to receive a patent in the United States. Her invention is a great example of creativity and practicality coming together.

On this date in 1822, Philadelphia opened its public schools for Black children, which was a significant moment in American history. This move marked the first time in the city’s history that Black children had access to public education, though it was limited in scope. The establishment of these schools was a result of efforts from both the Black community and progressive white reformers who pushed for education for all children, regardless of race.

The Pennsylvania Abolition Society and other activists played a key role in advocating for the inclusion of Black children in public schools, helping to pave the way for educational equality. However, despite this progress, the schools for Black children were often underfunded and segregated, reflecting the deeply entrenched racial inequality of the time.

On this date in 1970, James McGhee made history as the first African American mayor of Dayton, Ohio. His election was a significant milestone in the city’s history, reflecting the broader social changes and civil rights advancements happening across the country during that era. McGhee’s election was a powerful symbol of progress and paved the way for more African American leaders in local and national government.

On this date in 1929, Francis Bebey was born, was a Cameroonian musician, guitarist, and author. He is well-known for his contributions to African music, blending traditional rhythms with modern styles, including jazz, and experimenting with different sounds on the guitar. Bebey was not only a talented musician but also a writer, and he wrote books on music and culture. His work has had a lasting influence on the global music scene, especially in the realm of African contemporary music.

On this date in 1869, A.J. Hayne, a Black captain of the Arkansas militia, was assassinated in Marion, Arkansas. His death occurred in the context of the post-Civil War era, during the Reconstruction period, when racial tensions and violence were escalating in the South. A.J. Hayne had been involved in efforts to defend Black rights and safeguard the community in the face of hostility from white supremacist groups. His assassination was part of a broader pattern of violence aimed at suppressing Black political and social progress during that time.

On this date in 1864, General Andrew Jackson Smith, commanding a Union force of around 14,000 men, including a brigade of African American troops, achieved a significant victory over Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest at the Battle of Harrisburg, near Tupelo, Mississippi.

This battle was part of the larger struggle in the western theater of the Civil War. Forrest, who was known for his daring cavalry raids, was forced to retreat after the defeat, and the Union victory helped secure Union control over key areas in Mississippi. The inclusion of Black troops in Smith’s forces marked an important moment in the war, highlighting the increasing involvement of African Americans in the Union army, a trend that would grow over the following years.

This battle, though not one of the largest or most well-known engagements of the Civil War, was a significant success for the Union in the context of their broader strategic goals.

On this date in 1822, first African American woman to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court, born. Violette A. Johnson made history on July 16, 1967, by becoming the first African American woman to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court. This groundbreaking achievement was a significant milestone, both for women and for African Americans in the legal field. Johnson’s success in breaking such racial and gender barriers in law highlights her perseverance, skill, and the barriers she overcame in an era where opportunities were extremely limited for Black women in the profession. Her work paved the way for others to follow in her footsteps, inspiring generations to come.

On this date in 1991, Miles Davis, one of the most influential jazz musicians of all time, was named a Knight in the French Legion of Honor. This prestigious recognition was awarded for his immense contributions to the world of music, particularly jazz. Davis’ relationship with France was special, as he had a deep connection to the country and its culture, often finding creative inspiration there. His artistry, which spanned several decades and included groundbreaking albums like Kind of Blue and Bitches Brew, left an indelible mark on both jazz and the broader music world.

On this date in 1977, Janelle Penny Commissiong of Trinidad and Tobago made history by becoming the first Black woman to win the Miss Universe title. Her victory was a landmark moment in the pageant’s history, as it broke racial barriers and paved the way for more diversity in beauty competitions. Commissiong’s achievement not only brought pride to her country but also served as an inspiration to women around the world, particularly those of African descent, showing that beauty comes in all forms.

On this date in 1936, the movie The Green Pastures premiered in New York City. The film, directed by Marc Connelly, is based on the 1929 play of the same name by Connelly and is a notable example of early Hollywood’s attempts to portray African American life and religious themes. The story is set in Heaven, where key biblical stories are told through the eyes of African American characters. The film is remembered for its unique portrayal of Black culture and its pioneering use of an all-Black cast, which was rare for its time.

On this date in 1934, Donald Payne, who became the first African American congressman from New Jersey, was born. He served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1989 until his death in 2012. He was known for his work on issues related to international affairs, particularly in Africa, and for his advocacy on civil rights and social justice. His legacy includes being a trailblazer for African Americans in Congress and contributing to a number of important policy initiatives throughout his career.

On this date in 1862, Ida B. Wells Barnett, a pioneering African American journalist, educator, and civil rights activist was born. She is best known for her courageous anti-lynching campaign and her work in exposing the brutal realities of racial violence in the United States. Wells Barnett was a fearless advocate for justice and equality, using her writing to challenge societal norms and fight against racial discrimination. Her work laid the foundation for the Civil Rights Movement and continues to inspire social justice efforts today.

On this date in 1959, Billie Holiday, the iconic American jazz and blues singer, passed away. She died from heart failure due to cirrhosis of the liver at the age of 44. Despite her troubled life and struggles with addiction, Holiday’s unique vocal style and emotional depth left a lasting legacy in the world of music, and she is remembered as one of the greatest jazz vocalists of all time. Her works like “Strange Fruit” and “God Bless the Child” continue to be celebrated today.

On this date in 1981, the Atlanta child murders case took a significant turn when Wayne Williams was indicted for the murders of two adult men, Nathaniel Cater and Jimmy Ray Payne. These killings were part of a series of murders in the late 1970s and early 1980s, during which at least 28 children and young adults were killed in Atlanta, Georgia. The cases were collectively known as the “Atlanta Child Murders.”

Wayne Williams, a 23-year-old freelance photographer and talent scout, was eventually arrested and convicted for the deaths of these two men, although he was never officially charged with the murders of the children. The authorities linked him to the crimes through physical evidence, such as fibers that matched those found on the victims. He was sentenced to life in prison, but many still question whether he was responsible for all of the murders.

Despite his conviction, some aspects of the case remain controversial, and there are ongoing debates about whether Williams was guilty of all the crimes attributed to him or whether the investigation was mishandled. The case remains one of the most infamous in Atlanta’s history.

On this date in 1967, John Coltrane, one of the most influential and innovative jazz musicians in history, passed away at the age of 40. His contributions to jazz, particularly in the realms of modal jazz and free jazz, were groundbreaking. Coltrane’s work, especially on albums like A Love Supreme, Giant Steps, and My Favorite Things, left a lasting legacy on both jazz and music in general. His spiritual journey and exploration of new forms and sounds continue to inspire musicians and listeners to this day.

On this date in 1967, the race riot in Cairo, Illinois, was a significant event in the Civil Rights Movement. Tensions between the African American community and white residents had been escalating in Cairo for years due to systemic racism, segregation, and economic disparity. The riot began after a white police officer shot and killed an African American man, causing outrage among the black residents. The violence quickly spread, and the National Guard was mobilized to restore order.

Cairo, which was already experiencing racial tensions, became a focal point of civil rights protests. The situation worsened over time, and the National Guard’s presence aimed to prevent further violence, although the community continued to deal with the challenges of inequality and racial injustice.

This event was part of a broader wave of racial unrest in American cities during the 1960s, highlighting the struggles for civil rights and the demand for equality.

On this date in 1935, Diahnn Carroll a celebrated American actress, singer, and model was born. She gained widespread fame for her groundbreaking role in the television series Julia (1968–1971), where she became the first African American woman to star in her own TV show. Carroll was known for her elegance, talent, and her contributions to both television and film. She was also a Tony Award winner for her role in the musical No Strings (1962). Carroll’s career spanned multiple decades, and she became an icon in entertainment. She passed away on October 4, 2019.

On this date in 1944, the Port Chicago Naval Magazine in California exploded. The explosion was a significant event during World War II. It occurred when a massive explosion destroyed the ammunition depot, killing 320 people, most of them African American sailors who were working in the munitions depot at the time. The explosion was so powerful that it could be heard from over 100 miles away.

The incident had far-reaching consequences. It led to the forced integration of African American sailors into other naval positions, as many of the workers at the depot were segregated, and a subsequent mutiny trial of African American sailors who refused to return to work under the dangerous conditions. This event is considered a key moment in the civil rights movement and the desegregation of the U.S. military.

On this date in 1942, Muhammad Ali, originally named Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr., was born, in Louisville, Kentucky. He became one of the most famous and influential athletes in history, known not only for his extraordinary boxing career but also for his bold personality, social activism, and impact on the world. His legendary matches, such as those against Sonny Liston, Joe Frazier, and George Foreman, along with his famous phrases like “Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee,” solidified his place as a cultural icon.

On this date in 1911, Frank Snowden, a pioneering scholar on the history of Black people in ancient times, was indeed born. His work focused on exploring the representation and role of African people, particularly Ethiopians, in ancient history. His influential books Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience and Before Color Prejudice: The Ancient View of Blacks contributed significantly to our understanding of race and the ancient world’s treatment of African peoples. His research challenged long-standing ideas about race and helped to reframe the contributions of Black people to history.

On this date in 1888, Miriam E. Benjamin, an African American school teacher, was granted a Patent number 386,289 for her invention, which was a “gong and signal chair.” This invention was designed to be used in public spaces, such as theaters, to help summon an usher or signal a need for assistance. The device was a chair with a gong that could be activated by a button or mechanism, making it easier for people to get attention when needed.

Miriam Benjamin’s patent made her one of the first African American women to receive a patent for an invention. Her work was significant in terms of innovation and in breaking barriers for women inventors, particularly African American women, during that time.

The Battle of Honey Springs, fought on July 17, 1863, was a significant engagement during the American Civil War. Union forces, including the First Kansas Colored Volunteer Infantry, achieved a decisive victory over Confederate troops in the Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma). This battle was notable not only for its military outcome but also for the pivotal role played by Black soldiers, who demonstrated their bravery and captured the colors of a Texas regiment, symbolizing a significant achievement for African American troops in the war.

On July 17, 1862, Congress passed the Second Confiscation Act, which was an important step toward granting freedom to enslaved African Americans during the Civil War. This law allowed the Union Army to seize the property (including enslaved people) of those who supported the Confederacy and declared that enslaved individuals who escaped to Union lines would be freed.

This legislation was part of the growing movement within Congress and the Union Army to undermine slavery in Confederate states. It paved the way for further emancipation measures, including President Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, which declared the freedom of all enslaved people in Confederate states.

The passing of this act represented a significant shift in the federal government’s stance on slavery and showed the growing support for African American freedom during the Civil War. It marked a critical point in the fight for emancipation and the eventual abolition of slavery in the United States.

On July 17, 1794, Richard Allen founded the Bethel African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church in Philadelphia. This church became one of the first independent black denominations in the United States. Richard Allen, a former enslaved person, played a crucial role in the development of the AME Church as a religious and social institution that would advocate for the rights and dignity of African Americans. Bethel AME Church in Philadelphia was central to this movement and is considered the birthplace of the African Methodist Episcopal denomination.

On July 17, 1794, Absalom Jones and his followers dedicated the African Church of St. Thomas in Philadelphia. This church was notable for being one of the first African American Episcopal churches in the United States. Afterward, on August 12, 1794, the congregation affiliated with the Protestant Episcopal Church, marking a significant step in the religious and social history of African Americans in the early republic. Absalom Jones, a prominent African American leader and the first African American priest in the Episcopal Church, played a key role in advocating for African American autonomy in religious practices. This was an important moment in the broader movement for religious and social independence among African Americans during the 18th and 19th centuries.

On this date 1899, L.C. Bailey was granted U.S. Patent #620,286 for the invention of the folding bed. This design allowed the bed to be conveniently folded and stored away, which was especially useful in spaces with limited room. The idea revolutionized furniture design for smaller living spaces and contributed to the development of multi-functional furniture.

On this date in 1918, Nelson Mandela was born, in the village of Mvezo, in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. He would go on to become one of the most influential figures in the fight against apartheid, serving as South Africa’s first black president from 1994 to 1999. Mandela’s leadership, activism, and commitment to peace and reconciliation made him a global symbol for justice and human rights.

On this date in 1964, a race riot broke out in Harlem, New York, which later spread to the Bedford-Stuyvesant area of Brooklyn. This was a significant event during the Civil Rights Movement. The riot was sparked by growing frustration among African American residents over police brutality, economic inequality, and social injustices in Harlem. The immediate trigger was an incident where a white police officer allegedly shot an African American teenager, which led to protests that escalated into violence.

The unrest, which lasted for several days, resulted in widespread property damage and numerous arrests. It was one of several racial disturbances in the United States during the 1960s, reflecting the deep racial tensions and struggles for civil rights during that time. These events contributed to a broader conversation about race relations, police practices, and the demand for social and economic equality in America.

On this date in 1863, the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment was one of the first official African American regiments in the United States Army during the Civil War. Formed on March 13, 1863, it was led by Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, a white officer, and included African American men who were formerly enslaved or free.

On July 18, 1863, the Fifty-fourth Regiment is famously known for its courageous assault on Fort Wagner, South Carolina. The fort was a Confederate stronghold, and the regiment’s attack was part of the Union’s efforts to capture it. Despite heavy resistance, the regiment fought valiantly, and many of its soldiers were killed or wounded, including Colonel Shaw, who died during the battle. The bravery demonstrated by the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts played a crucial role in proving the capability and valor of African American soldiers, significantly influencing the future recruitment of Black soldiers into the Union Army.

This battle, and the regiment’s overall contributions, marked an important moment in the Civil War, demonstrating the willingness of African Americans to fight for their freedom and contributing to the eventual Union victory.

On this date in 1863, Sergeant William H. Carney of the 54th Massachusetts Infantry became the first African American to be awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Fort Wagner in the American Civil War.

Carney was a sergeant in the 54th Massachusetts, one of the first official African American regiments in the U.S. Army. During the battle, he was part of a heroic effort to plant the American flag on the fort’s ramparts, despite heavy enemy fire. Even after being severely wounded, Carney carried the flag throughout the battle, ensuring it never touched the ground. His bravery and dedication earned him the Medal of Honor, making him a symbol of courage and sacrifice in the fight for freedom and equality.

Lemuel Haynes was indeed a remarkable figure in American history. Born on July 18, 1753, in West Hartford, Connecticut, Haynes is recognized as the first Black minister to serve a predominantly white congregation in the United States. He became a preacher, soldier, and abolitionist, and is known for his advocacy for racial equality and his role in early American Christianity.

Haynes had a challenging early life—he was born to a white mother and an unknown father and was raised in a white family in New England. He later served in the American Revolution and became deeply involved in theological studies. His influence in the church and his outspoken views on liberty and freedom made him an important figure in both religious and abolitionist circles during his time.

On July 19, 1941, the first U.S. Army flying school for Black cadets was dedicated at the Tuskegee Army Airfield in Alabama. This was a significant moment in history, as it marked the beginning of the Tuskegee Airmen program, a pioneering group of African American pilots who would go on to serve with distinction during World War II.

The establishment of the flying school was a response to pressure from civil rights groups and African American leaders who sought to break racial barriers in the military. The Tuskegee Airmen overcame immense challenges and discrimination, earning a legacy of bravery and excellence in combat. Their success played a key role in reshaping U.S. military policies on race and served as a catalyst for the eventual integration of the armed forces.

On July 19, 1967, more than 1,000 people gathered in Newark, New Jersey, for the first Black Power Conference. This event was a pivotal moment in the Black Power movement, bringing together activists, leaders, and community organizers to discuss strategies for Black empowerment, self-determination, and political influence.

The conference addressed key issues such as economic independence, education, housing, and political representation. It also reinforced the importance of Black unity and self-reliance in the struggle for civil rights and social justice.

This took place during a period of significant racial tensions in the U.S., including the Newark Rebellion, which occurred just days before the conference. The event was a landmark in the movement, influencing later Black political and social activism.

On July 19, 1979, President Jimmy Carter announced the resignation of Joseph A. Califano Jr. as Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) and nominated Patricia Roberts Harris to succeed him in that role.

Harris had been serving as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) since January 1977.

Her appointment to HEW marked a significant milestone, as she became the first African American woman to serve in a U.S. presidential cabinet.

She continued in this capacity until 1980, when the department was reorganized into the Department of Health and Human Services, with Harris remaining as its first Secretary.

The Durham Riot of 1967 occurred in Durham, North Carolina, and was part of a larger wave of civil unrest that took place in U.S. cities during the 1960s. The riot was sparked by tensions related to racial inequality, police brutality, and the social conditions in the African American community.

On July 19, 1967, a protest turned violent, and the National Guard was called in to restore order. The unrest followed a series of similar riots across the country, particularly in urban areas, and was influenced by the broader Civil Rights Movement as well as the frustration and anger that many Black Americans felt due to ongoing discrimination.

This particular riot did not receive as much national attention as some of the more prominent incidents of the time, like the Detroit or Newark riots, but it was still a significant moment in Durham’s history, highlighting the racial tensions of the era and the social challenges facing African Americans in the post-civil rights era. The deployment of the National Guard was a response to the violence, which included looting, destruction, and clashes with law enforcement.

On July 19, 1966, Governor James A. Rhodes of Ohio declared a State of Emergency due to severe civil unrest in the city of Cleveland. This declaration came in the wake of violent racial riots that had broken out in the Hough neighborhood of Cleveland, which was primarily African American. The disturbances, driven by frustration over racial inequalities, poverty, and police brutality, resulted in significant property damage and confrontations with law enforcement.

Governor Rhodes’ response included calling in the Ohio National Guard to restore order. The Cleveland riots were part of a larger pattern of racial unrest in American cities during the 1960s, a period marked by widespread protests and tensions over civil rights issues.

On July 19, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued an executive order that led to the establishment of the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC). This was part of an effort to address discrimination in the workplace, particularly in the defense industry, during World War II. The order aimed to ensure that African Americans and other minority groups had access to employment opportunities, especially in government contracts and defense-related industries, which were vital to the war effort.

The creation of the FEPC was a response to mounting pressure from civil rights groups, most notably the March on Washington Movement led by A. Philip Randolph, who threatened a large-scale march to demand equal employment opportunities. Although the FEPC had limited power and resources, it marked a significant step toward combating racial discrimination in employment and laid the foundation for future civil rights advancements.

On July 19, 1925, the legendary entertainer Josephine Baker made her Paris debut at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in the revue La Revue Nègre. This performance marked the beginning of her rise to international fame.

Baker captivated audiences with her charismatic stage presence, daring dance moves, and signature banana skirt in her famous “Danse Sauvage.” She quickly became a symbol of the Jazz Age in France, gaining immense popularity and later becoming a French citizen.

Beyond entertainment, Baker was also a civil rights activist, a member of the French Resistance during World War II, and a humanitarian. She was the first Black woman to star in a major motion picture (Siren of the Tropics, 1927) and later became a vocal advocate for racial equality.

Her influence was so profound that in 2021, she became the first Black woman inducted into the Panthéon in Paris, France’s highest honor for national figures.

On July 19, 1913, the Tri-State Dental Association was formed as a professional organization for African American dentists in the U.S. It served as the forerunner of the National Dental Association (NDA), which was officially established in 1932.

At the time, Black dentists faced exclusion from the American Dental Association (ADA) and other mainstream professional groups, so they created their own networks to support education, advocacy, and professional development. The NDA remains a major organization dedicated to promoting oral health equity and supporting Black dental professionals.

On July 19-20, 1848, Frederick Douglass attended the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women’s rights convention in the United States. He was a strong supporter of women’s rights and played a key role in advocating for the passage of the Declaration of Sentiments, a document drafted by Elizabeth Cady Stanton that called for gender equality, including women’s suffrage.

During the convention, Douglass passionately spoke in favor of women’s right to vote, arguing that without the ballot, women could never achieve true equality. He defended Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who faced criticism for including women’s suffrage in the declaration, and used his platform as an influential abolitionist and newspaper editor to promote the cause.

His newspaper, The North Star, later published an editorial stating:

“In respect to political rights, we hold woman to be justly entitled to all we claim for man.”

Douglass’s presence at Seneca Falls showed the intersection of abolitionism and women’s rights, highlighting his belief in universal equality.

On July 19, 1967, a riot broke out in Memphis, Tennessee, as part of the broader civil unrest occurring across the United States during the late 1960s. The disturbance was sparked by racial tensions and economic frustrations within the Black community, similar to uprisings in other cities that year.

Key Events:

The Memphis riot foreshadowed further tensions in the city, including the sanitation workers’ strike of 1968, which was a major event leading to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s assassination in April 1968.

On July 20, 1950, during the Korean War, the 24th Infantry Regiment, an all-Black unit of the U.S. Army, achieved the first U.S. victory in Korea. The regiment played a crucial role in defending Yechon, South Korea, from North Korean forces.

This victory was significant not only militarily but also historically, as it showcased the bravery and effectiveness of African American soldiers at a time when the U.S. military was still in the process of desegregation. The heroism of these troops helped pave the way for full integration of the armed forces, which was officially ordered by President Harry Truman in Executive Order 9981 (1948).

On this date in July, Mary Church Terrell was a prominent African American activist who played a pivotal role in advancing civil rights and women’s suffrage. In 1896, she became the first president of the National Association of Colored Women (NACW), an organization formed through the merger of the Colored Women’s League and the National Federation of Afro-American Women. The NACW aimed to unify Black women’s clubs across the nation to address issues such as women’s suffrage, lynching, and Jim Crow laws. Under Terrell’s leadership, the association adopted the motto “Lifting as we climb,” reflecting its commitment to uplifting African American communities through education and advocacy.
ARCHIVES.GOV

Terrell’s election as the first president of the NACW marked a significant milestone in the history of African American women’s activism, highlighting her dedication to social justice and equality.

On this date in 1939, Jane M. Bolin was appointed as the first African American female judge in the United States on July 22, 1939. She was appointed by New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia to serve as a judge of the Domestic Relations Court (now the Family Court). Bolin served for 40 years, advocating for children’s rights, civil rights, and fair treatment in the legal system.

On July 20, 1967, more than a thousand people gathered in Newark, New Jersey, for the first Black Power Conference. This event was a significant moment in the Black Power movement, bringing together activists, intellectuals, and community leaders to discuss strategies for racial justice, economic empowerment, and self-determination for Black communities.

The conference was part of a larger wave of activism during the 1960s, following the Civil Rights Movement, and emphasized Black political and economic independence. It took place in the wake of the 1967 Newark riots, which were sparked by systemic racism, police brutality, and economic inequality.

On this date in 1962, ,more than 160 activists jailed after demonstration in Albany. By August 1962, the number of arrests had nearly reached 1,000, as authorities, particularly Police Chief Laurie Pritchett, used mass arrests as a strategy to suppress the movement while avoiding violent crackdowns that could attract national outrage. This was part of the Albany Movement, a civil rights campaign in Albany, Georgia, that sought to end segregation and discrimination. The movement, which began in late 1961, was led by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and later supported by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).

Despite the mass arrests, the Albany Movement laid the groundwork for future civil rights campaigns by emphasizing grassroots organization and nonviolent resistance. While it did not achieve immediate desegregation in Albany, the lessons learned influenced later successful efforts, such as the Birmingham Campaign in 1963.

On this date in 1951,Private First Class (PFC) William H. Thompson was the first African American to receive the Congressional Medal of Honor during the Korean War. On July 21, 1951, he was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his extraordinary bravery in combat.

His Story:
PFC Thompson served in Company M, 24th Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry Division of the U.S. Army during the Korean War. On August 6, 1950, near Haman, South Korea, Thompson’s unit was attacked by a numerically superior enemy force. Despite being wounded, he refused to retreat and continued to fire his machine gun to cover his fellow soldiers’ withdrawal. His courageous stand allowed his comrades to escape, but he was ultimately killed in action.

His Legacy:
PFC William H. Thompson was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor by President Harry S. Truman on July 21, 1951, recognizing his heroism. His actions exemplified selflessness and dedication to duty, making him a symbol of bravery and sacrifice.

On July 21, 1950, during the Korean War, the U.S. 24th Infantry Regiment, composed primarily of African American soldiers, successfully recaptured the town of Yechon after a fierce 16-hour battle. This battle marked the first significant American victory in the Korean War. The regiment’s bravery and tenacity in the face of a fierce enemy helped stem the tide of the North Korean advance, and this victory was crucial in the broader context of the war, which had seen the North Korean forces quickly pushing south.

The 24th Infantry Regiment’s role in this battle is significant not only for its military achievement but also because it was one of the first major engagements involving Black troops during the Korean War, at a time when racial segregation was still prevalent in the U.S. military. Their success at Yechon demonstrated their courage and combat effectiveness, challenging some of the prevailing racial stereotypes of the time.

On July 21, 1896, the National Federation of Afro-American Women and the Colored Women’s League merged to form the National Association of Colored Women (NACW), which became one of the most influential organizations for African American women during that period. Mary Church Terrell, a prominent activist and educator, was elected the first president of the NACW during its founding meeting held at Washington’s Nineteenth Street Baptist Church. Under her leadership, the organization focused on issues such as racial equality, women’s suffrage, and civil rights, and it played a vital role in advocating for both African Americans and women in general.

On this date in 1864, the first daily Black newspaper, The New Orleans Tribune, is published in English and French. The New Orleans Tribune was the first daily newspaper for Black people, founded by a group of free Black men in New Orleans. It played a crucial role in giving a voice to the African American community during a time when racial inequality was deeply ingrained in society. The newspaper was published in both English and French, reflecting the city’s diverse culture and its large Creole population.

The Tribune advocated for civil rights, education, and political engagement, while also offering a platform for African Americans to express their experiences and viewpoints. It operated until 1868, a short but impactful period in history.

On July 22, 1963, Floyd Patterson faced Sonny Liston in a highly anticipated rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship. Patterson, who had previously defeated Ingemar Johansson to win the title back in 1960, was looking to reclaim his position after losing to Liston in their first encounter in 1962. However, in the rematch, Liston won again, this time by a knockout in the first round. This victory solidified Liston as the heavyweight champion and marked the end of Patterson’s reign as champion. Liston’s dominance in the ring during this time made him one of the most feared fighters in boxing history.

On this date in 2001, Whitman Mayo, an American actor best known for his role as Grady Wilson on the TV sitcom Sanford and Son, passed away on July 22, 2001. He was 70 years old at the time of his death. Mayo was a beloved figure in television history, and his portrayal of Grady, a good-natured but sometimes goofy friend to the main character, was one of his most iconic roles. He also had a varied career in both television and film.

On July 22, 1939, Jane Matilda Bolin made history by becoming the first African American woman to be appointed as a judge in the United States. She was appointed to the Domestic Relations Court in New York City by Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia. Bolin’s groundbreaking appointment marked a significant achievement in the fight for racial and gender equality in the legal profession. She served as a judge for 40 years, making notable contributions to social justice and the legal system.

On July 22, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln read the preliminary version of the Emancipation Proclamation to his Cabinet. This was a pivotal moment in American history. The Emancipation Proclamation, which would later be issued on January 1, 1863, declared that all enslaved people in Confederate-held territory were to be set free. Lincoln’s decision to issue the proclamation was influenced by various factors, including military necessity during the Civil War and the growing abolitionist movement. While it didn’t immediately free any enslaved people, it was a significant step toward ending slavery and altering the course of the war and the nation’s future.

On July 22, 1848, President Abraham Lincoln presented a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet, though it would take a few more years for the document to be officially issued on January 1, 1863.

The Emancipation Proclamation declared the freedom of enslaved people in Confederate-held territory, marking a significant turning point in the Civil War. The decision to issue the Proclamation was influenced by several factors, including the Union’s military needs and the moral imperative to end slavery.

On July 22, 1848, Lester Walton was appointed as the U.S. Minister to Liberia on July 22, 1848. His appointment came during the presidency of James K. Polk. Walton played a significant role in U.S.-Liberia relations, as he was one of the first African American diplomats to serve in a foreign post. This marked a crucial step in the early history of African American involvement in U.S. diplomacy.

Jackie Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame on July 23, 1962. He was the first African American player to be honored with this recognition. Robinson broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball in 1947, playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers, and his induction into the Hall of Fame was a testament to his outstanding contributions to the game, both on and off the field. He is remembered for his incredible courage, skill, and the impact he had in shaping the civil rights movement through his pioneering role in integrating baseball.

On July 23, 1984, Vanessa Williams, who was the first African American to win the title of Miss America in 1983, resigned from her crown. The resignation came after nude photographs of her, taken before she entered the pageant, were published in Penthouse magazine. Despite this, Williams went on to have a successful career in music, television, and film, becoming an iconic performer and advocate for diversity in the entertainment industry. Her story remains one of resilience, as she overcame the scandal to thrive in her later career.

On July 23, 1968, Cleveland, Ohio, experienced significant racial unrest that came to be known as the “Hough Riots” (sometimes referred to as the “Hough Rebellion”). The riots were sparked by long-standing racial tensions, economic inequality, and police brutality within the Hough neighborhood, which had a predominantly African American population.

The unrest began after a confrontation between the police and a black man who had allegedly violated the law. The situation escalated over several days, with looting, arson, and violent clashes between African American residents and law enforcement. The Cleveland National Guard was called in to restore order. The riots were among several other similar uprisings during the 1960s, particularly in Northern cities, driven by frustrations over systemic racism, poverty, and lack of opportunity in Black communities.

While the riots resulted in significant property damage and a number of arrests, the root causes were much deeper, tied to the racial and economic disparities that plagued the city. The Hough Riots were a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement, emphasizing the urgency for social and economic reforms.

The Detroit riot of 1967 was a major event in U.S. history, marking a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement. It started with a police raid at an unlicensed bar on July 23, 1967, and quickly escalated into violent confrontations between African American residents and law enforcement. The rebellion lasted for five days, resulting in widespread destruction, looting, and arson in many neighborhoods.

The death toll of 43 people, along with the injuries and arrests, underscored the deep racial tensions and inequalities that existed in Detroit and many other American cities at the time. Federal troops were brought in to restore order, but the causes of the unrest, such as police brutality, economic disenfranchisement, and systemic racism, remained unresolved. This event is often seen as one of the key catalysts for subsequent social movements aimed at addressing racial injustice in the U.S.

The Progressive Party convention held in Philadelphia on July 23, 1948, was a significant event in American political history. It was at this convention that Henry Wallace, former Vice President under Franklin D. Roosevelt, was nominated as the Progressive Party’s candidate for president. Wallace had been a key figure in Roosevelt’s administration, known for his advocacy of progressive policies, including civil rights and economic reforms.

The Progressive Party, which had splintered off from the Democratic Party, made a concerted effort to appeal to African Americans, who were increasingly engaged in political and social movements during the post-World War II era. Around 150 Black delegates and alternates attended the convention, highlighting the party’s growing outreach to African American communities.

The keynote speaker, Charles P. Howard, was a notable figure in his own right. He was an attorney, a publisher, and a former Republican, whose presence symbolized the Progressive Party’s broader appeal across different political and social groups. His speech at the convention underscored the party’s commitment to racial equality and civil rights, which was a key part of their platform during that time.

The 1948 Progressive Party convention marked an important moment in the history of political movements aimed at challenging the status quo and advocating for racial justice and economic reform in the United States.

Louis Tompkins Wright, born on July 23, 1924, was a prominent physician and one of the first African American physicians to make significant contributions in his field. He was best known for his role as a pioneering surgeon and for his leadership in advancing medical research. Wright is remembered for his service as a medical officer during World War II, where he worked with the U.S. Army and also contributed significantly to the development of programs aimed at improving healthcare for African Americans.

The Pan-African Congress held its first major meeting in London on July 23, 1900. It was a significant event in the early history of the Pan-African movement, aiming to address the challenges faced by people of African descent, especially in the face of European colonialism. The Congress was attended by prominent figures like W.E.B. Du Bois, who played a key role in organizing the event, and it focused on issues such as racism, colonialism, and the rights of Africans both on the continent and in the diaspora. The resolutions from this Congress laid the groundwork for future Pan-African gatherings and movements.

On July 23, 1868, the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified, which granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves. This was a monumental step in the civil rights movement, as it provided equal protection under the law to all citizens. The 14th Amendment also ensured that states could not deny any person the equal protection of the laws, which became a critical foundation for later civil rights advances.

Kenneth Bancroft Clark was born on July 24, 1914, and he went on to become a pioneering African American psychologist. Clark is best known for his work in social psychology, particularly his research on the effects of segregation on African American children. His most famous study, the “Doll Test,” was a groundbreaking experiment in which he showed that African American children, when given a choice between a white doll and a black doll, often preferred the white doll. This research helped to challenge the idea of “separate but equal” and was influential in the landmark Brown v. Board of Education case, which led to the desegregation of schools in the United States.

Mary Church Terrell, a prominent African American activist and educator, passed away on July 24, 1954. She made history as one of the first Black women to serve on the Washington, D.C. Board of Education, an important milestone in the fight for racial equality and representation. Terrell was also a founding member of the National Association of Colored Women and a strong advocate for civil rights, women’s suffrage, and education reform.

Her work had a significant impact on advancing social justice, and she is remembered for her tireless advocacy for Black Americans, especially women and children.

Billy Taylor, the renowned jazz musician, was born on July 24, 1921, in Greenville, North Carolina. He became a significant figure in jazz, known for his work as a pianist, composer, and educator. Taylor was influential in shaping jazz music and had a career that spanned several decades. He also played a key role in promoting jazz through his work in education and as a television host. His contributions to jazz are highly regarded, and he helped bridge the gap between jazz and other music genres.

The Washington, D.C. Race Riot of July 1919 was one of the many racial disturbances that occurred during the summer of 1919, which became known as the “Red Summer.” These riots were a series of race-related violent outbreaks across the United States, fueled by racial tensions, competition for jobs, and the post-World War I environment.

In Washington, D.C., the violence erupted after an incident on July 19, when a white police officer arrested an African American man, sparking protests from the Black community. Tensions escalated over the next few days, and on July 24, riots broke out in the city. The violence resulted in the deaths of at least five African Americans and several white people, with many others injured. The National Guard had to be called in to restore order.

The riot highlighted the deep racial divisions in the city and reflected broader social and political unrest that characterized the Red Summer of 1919. This period saw numerous race riots in cities such as Chicago, Tulsa, and Elaine, as white supremacy and racial violence intensified, and Black communities, many of whom had recently migrated from the South, fought for better treatment, political representation, and civil rights.

Ira Aldridge, born on July 24, 1904, was a pioneering African American actor. He became one of the first black actors to gain prominence in Europe, particularly in the UK and Russia. Aldridge was renowned for his Shakespearean performances, notably as Othello, and was celebrated for his talent and trailblazing efforts in an era when racial barriers in the theater were especially rigid. His contributions to the arts helped open doors for future generations of actors, especially those from marginalized backgrounds.

The New Orleans race riot of 1900 occurred on July 24, 1900, as part of a period of heightened racial tension in the United States, especially in the South. It started after a black man, a dock worker named Robert Charles, allegedly shot and killed a police officer during a confrontation. The killing of the officer sparked outrage, and an angry white mob took to the streets, targeting Black residents in retaliation.

The riot resulted in the deaths of several people, including both Black and white individuals. Some estimates suggest that at least 28 people died during the event, though the true number is uncertain. Many others were injured, and Black residents of New Orleans experienced widespread violence, including homes and businesses being looted or destroyed.

The riot was significant in that it reflected the deeply entrenched racial animosity and the practice of racial segregation that existed in the South at the time. It also illustrated the growing tensions between Black residents and white authorities, a theme that would persist throughout the early 20th century.

This event is sometimes overshadowed in the broader historical narrative but remains a notable example of racial violence in New Orleans during the Jim Crow era.

On July 24, 1866, Congress passed a resolution readmitting Tennessee to the Union following the Civil War. Tennessee had been the first state to secede from the Union in 1861, but it was also the first to be readmitted after the war ended. This resolution marked a significant step in the Reconstruction era, which aimed to rebuild and reintegrate the Southern states that had seceded. Tennessee’s readmission paved the way for the eventual reintegration of other former Confederate states.

Alexandre Dumas was born on July 24, 1802, in Villers-Cotterêts, France to a Haitian mulatto, Thomas Alexandre Dumas, and Marie Labouret Dumas, a French woman.. He’s best known for writing The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo, two iconic adventure novels that have captivated readers for generations. Dumas was a prolific writer, producing numerous works in various genres, and his stories continue to influence popular culture today.

The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, where Blacks were used in experiments with syphilis, admitted to by US government officials, 1972

On July 24, 2002, Black Enterprise publisher Earl G. Graves, along with basketball legend Magic Johnson, signed an agreement to purchase Pepsi-Cola of Washington, D.C. This deal made them the owners of the largest minority-controlled Pepsi-Cola franchise in the United States at that time. The acquisition was significant not only because it demonstrated the growing influence of African American entrepreneurs in corporate America but also as a strategic move to expand their business portfolios.

On July 24, 1992, General Colin Powell, who was the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff at the time, dedicated the Buffalo Soldiers Monument at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. The monument honors the contributions and legacy of the Buffalo Soldiers, African American military units that served in the U.S. Army, particularly during the post-Civil War era. The Buffalo Soldiers were instrumental in the Indian Wars, protecting settlers, building infrastructure, and preserving national parks in the American West. The dedication of this monument was an important moment in recognizing the historical significance and valor of these soldiers.

On July 25, 1991, Dennis Hightower was appointed as the president of Disney Consumer Products for the Europe and Middle East regions. Hightower had a distinguished career with Disney, and his promotion marked a significant step in the company’s expansion and efforts to grow its consumer products division internationally. His leadership helped to strengthen Disney’s presence in global markets.

On July 25, 1972, the U.S. government admitted to the existence of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment, a medical study that began in 1932. In this experiment, the U.S. Public Health Service studied the natural progression of syphilis in African American men in Tuskegee, Alabama, without informing them of their diagnosis or providing treatment, even after penicillin became the standard and effective treatment for the disease in the 1940s. The study continued for 40 years, with participants denied proper medical care, and it was only publicly revealed in 1972, leading to outrage and significant changes in medical ethics.

In response to this scandal, the U.S. government implemented stronger regulations on human medical research, including informed consent, and established new ethical standards. The Tuskegee study is one of the most infamous examples of medical exploitation and remains a critical chapter in the history of medical ethics and African American distrust of the healthcare system.

The Moore’s Ford Lynching occurred on July 25, 1946, in Walton County, Georgia. It was a horrific and racially charged event in which two African American couples, George and Mae Murray Dorsey and Roger and Dorothy Malcom, were brutally murdered by a mob. The Dorseys and Malcoms were accused of the crime of allegedly assaulting a white woman, though there was no clear evidence to support this claim.

The lynching took place after an accusation had been made against Roger Malcom, who was in jail for allegedly assaulting a white farmer. The mob, despite the presence of law enforcement, pulled the victims from the jail, took them to the Moore’s Ford Bridge, and shot them multiple times.  The lynching was witnessed by several people, including children, who were unable to prevent the attack. Despite an initial investigation and the identification of multiple suspects, no one was ever prosecuted for the crime.

This tragedy is significant not only because of the brutality of the act but also due to the fact that it remained unsolved for years. Despite investigations by the FBI and public outcry, no one was ever convicted for the murders, and the incident became a symbol of the deep racial tensions and violence in the South during the time. It is considered one of the last known lynchings in the United States.

On July 25, 1943, the SS Leonard Roy Harmon was launched in Quincy, Massachusetts. It was a significant moment in history as it was the first warship to be named after an African American. The ship was named in honor of Leonard Roy Harmon, a mess attendant who died heroically during the attack on the USS San Francisco (CA-38) in the Battle of Guadalcanal in 1942. Harmon was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his bravery. His legacy was honored with the naming of the ship, reflecting the recognition of African Americans’ contributions and sacrifices during World War II.

The Liberty Life Insurance Company was founded on July 25, 1921. It was a prominent life insurance company that played an important role in the insurance industry in its time. Over the years, it grew through mergers and acquisitions and eventually became part of what is now known as Liberty Mutual.

Garrett T. Morgan is widely recognized for his significant contribution to safety with the invention of the gas mask. On July 25, 1916, he famously used his invention to rescue six men who were trapped in a gas-filled tunnel in Cleveland, Ohio, after an explosion. Morgan’s gas mask was an innovative device that helped protect individuals from toxic fumes and smoke, marking a major advancement in safety equipment.

His quick thinking and bravery in using the gas mask to save lives highlighted his practical application of invention and earned him national attention. This event further solidified his reputation as an inventor who used his creativity to address real-world problems.

On July 26, 1926, Carter G. Woodson was awarded the Spingarn Medal by the NAACP. Woodson, known as the “Father of Black History,” received the prestigious award for his pioneering work in African American history and his efforts to establish Black History Month. He founded the Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH) in 1915 and promoted the study and recognition of African American contributions to history. His work continues to influence the way African American history is studied and celebrated today.

On July 26, 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981, mandating the desegregation of the United States Armed Forces. The order declared that “there shall be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without regard to race, color, religion or national origin,” marking a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement.

July 26, 1847, marks the day Liberia declared its independence, becoming the first independent republic in Africa. The country had been founded by freed American slaves through the American Colonization Society, which had been sending freed African Americans to settle there since 1822. Liberia’s independence declaration on July 26, 1847, followed the drafting of its constitution, and it remains a significant day of celebration in the country to this day.

Liberia’s Independence Day is often marked with patriotic celebrations, including parades, ceremonies, and events reflecting the country’s history and achievements.

On July 26, 1926, the National Bar Association (NBA) was incorporated. It is the largest and oldest network of predominantly African American attorneys and judges in the United States. The NBA was founded to provide a space for African American lawyers to support each other and advocate for justice and equality, especially during a time when racial discrimination was prevalent in the legal system. The association continues to work toward its mission of advancing the legal profession and promoting equal rights and justice for all.

The race riot that occurred in Philadelphia on July 26, 1918, was part of a wave of racial tensions and violence in the U.S. during that time. It was sparked by a confrontation between Black and white residents in the city’s Point Breeze neighborhood. Tensions were exacerbated by the ongoing migration of Black Americans from the South to northern cities, along with competition for jobs and housing during World War I.

The riot led to violent clashes between the groups, resulting in the deaths of at least three white individuals and one Black person. The violence also caused significant property damage and heightened racial animosity in the area. It was one of many such incidents during the Red Summer of 1919, when race riots erupted in various parts of the U.S.

Spottiswood W. Robinson, born on July 26, 1916, was an American educator and innovator in the field of education. He was particularly influential in the development of new methods for teaching and was known for his contributions to various educational programs. His work helped shape the way teachers approached their classrooms and how students engaged with learning.

Spottiswood W. Robinson was also an influential figure in the legal and civil rights movements. As a representative of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, he played a crucial role in advocating for racial justice. He also served as the dean of Howard University Law School, a key institution for African American legal education, and was a member of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. His appointment by President Lyndon B. Johnson as a U.S. Circuit Judge of the D.C. Circuit was a significant achievement in his distinguished career. Robinson’s contributions were vital to the advancement of civil rights and legal reform in the United States.

On July 26, 1865, Patrick Francis Healy became the first African American to be awarded a Ph.D. He earned his doctorate in philosophy from the University of Berlin in Germany. Healy was born into a mixed-race family and was raised in Georgia. His educational journey was marked by remarkable achievements, considering the racial climate of the time.

Healy’s academic success was groundbreaking, not only because of the barriers Black Americans faced in academia but also because he was born to a white father and an enslaved Black mother. Healy went on to have a distinguished career, serving as president of Georgetown University from 1874 to 1882, where he played a role in its growth and development during that period.

His achievements were a significant step forward for Black scholars and left a lasting legacy in higher education.

Frederick Douglass was indeed a key figure in the first Women’s Rights Convention held in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. While he is best known for his work as an abolitionist, Douglass also strongly supported women’s rights, including suffrage. At the convention, he was the only man to take a prominent role, and he notably seconded the motion for women’s suffrage that was introduced by Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

Douglass was a passionate advocate for equality and saw the fight for women’s rights as deeply connected to the abolition of slavery. His support at Seneca Falls helped lend credibility to the movement and showed the intersection of struggles for freedom and equality for both African Americans and women.

On July 26, 1847, Joseph Jenkins Roberts, the first native-born President of Liberia, declared the country an independent republic. Liberia, founded by freed American slaves, had been under the control of the American Colonization Society before achieving independence. The declaration marked a significant moment in the nation’s history, as it became Africa’s first republic, and it also set a precedent for other nations on the continent. Liberia’s independence day is still celebrated annually on July 26.

On July 27, 1968, a riot erupted in Gary, Indiana, amid the racial and social tensions that marked the late 1960s in the United States. The unrest was part of a broader pattern of civil disturbances occurring in cities across the country, often fueled by issues such as racial inequality, police brutality, and economic disparity.

Gary, a city with a significant African American population, had been experiencing tensions related to civil rights and economic struggles. In 1967, Richard G. Hatcher was elected as one of the first Black mayors of a major U.S. city, a historic moment that highlighted both progress and deep-seated divisions. However, despite his election, systemic issues persisted, and frustrations within the community remained high.

The riot on July 27, 1968, reportedly involved clashes between residents and law enforcement, with incidents of looting, property damage, and confrontations with police. The National Guard may have been deployed to restore order, as was common in similar uprisings of the era.

On July 27, 1962, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was jailed in Albany, Georgia, during the Albany Movement, a civil rights campaign aimed at desegregating the entire city. The movement, which began in late 1961, was one of the first major attempts to challenge segregation on a broad scale in the Deep South.

Dr. King was arrested for leading a protest and was sentenced to 45 days in jail or a fine. Initially, he chose jail to draw attention to racial injustice. However, local authorities quietly paid his bail, preventing the movement from gaining further momentum through his imprisonment.

While the Albany Movement did not achieve all of its immediate goals, it provided valuable lessons for future civil rights campaigns, particularly in Birmingham (1963) and Selma (1965), where more focused strategies led to significant victories.

The Chicago Race Riot of 1919 was a significant and tragic event in American history. It was part of the larger “Red Summer” of 1919, during which racial violence erupted in numerous cities across the United States. The Chicago riot began on July 27, 1919, when a Black teenager, Eugene Williams, was killed after drifting into a whites-only section of a Lake Michigan beach. White men threw rocks at him, causing him to drown. When police refused to arrest the white perpetrators, tensions escalated into days of violent clashes between Black and white communities.

Over the course of about a week, 38 people were killed (15 white and 23 Black), more than 500 were injured, and thousands of Black residents were left homeless due to arson attacks. The violence was eventually subdued by the Illinois National Guard and additional law enforcement.

The riot highlighted deep racial divisions, housing discrimination, job competition, and systemic racism in Chicago. It also underscored the growing civil rights activism of the time, as Black leaders increasingly pushed back against racial injustices in the North.

Alexandre Dumas fils (1824–1895) was a French writer and playwright, best known for his novel La Dame aux Camélias (The Lady of the Camellias), which inspired Verdi’s opera La Traviata. He was the son of the famous novelist Alexandre Dumas père, who wrote The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo. Unlike his father, who focused on adventure novels, Dumas fils specialized in drama and works exploring moral and social themes, particularly about women and marriage.

On July 27, 1816, Fort Blount—more commonly known as Negro Fort—on the Apalachicola River in Florida was attacked by U.S. forces and their Creek allies. This was part of the U.S. military campaign to eliminate the fort, which had become a refuge for escaped enslaved people and allied Indigenous groups.

The Attack on Negro Fort

• Background: The fort had been abandoned by the British after the War of 1812, but formerly enslaved people and some Native Americans took control of it. The fort was seen as a threat by the U.S. and Southern plantation owners because it was a haven for those escaping slavery.
• Attack: On July 27, an American force, led by General Edmund P. Gaines and accompanied by Creek warriors, fired a red-hot cannonball into the fort’s powder magazine.
• Explosion: The cannonball ignited the gunpowder storage, causing a massive explosion that destroyed the fort almost instantly.
• Casualties: Out of around 300 people inside, nearly 270 were killed. Only a few survived, and many were captured and returned to slavery.

Aftermath

• The destruction of Negro Fort was a major event leading up to the First Seminole War (1817–1818).
• The U.S. built Fort Gadsden on the site to prevent any future uprisings.
• This event was an early example of the U.S. military enforcing slavery and territorial expansion in the South.

The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified on July 28, 1868, meaning it officially became law on that date. It granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including formerly enslaved individuals, and guaranteed equal protection under the law.

On July 28, 1917, thousands of Black Americans participated in the Silent Protest Parade in New York City, marching down Fifth Avenue to protest lynching, racial violence, and discrimination.

Key Facts About the Silent Protest Parade:

• Organized by the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and led by civil rights leaders like W.E.B. Du Bois and James Weldon Johnson.
• The march was a silent demonstration, with participants dressed in white (women and children) and black suits (men), carrying signs that called for justice.
• It was one of the earliest mass civil rights protests in U.S. history.
• The march was a response to the East St. Louis Massacre (July 1917), where white mobs attacked Black residents, killing hundreds and burning homes.

This powerful demonstration set the stage for future civil rights movements, proving the impact of peaceful protests against racial injustice.

On July 28, 1915, U.S. Marines landed in Haiti, beginning an occupation that lasted until 1934. This intervention was primarily driven by U.S. concerns over political instability, economic interests, and fears of foreign influence (especially from Germany) in the Caribbean.

The occupation turned Haiti into a de facto U.S. protectorate, as American forces took control of the government, finance, and infrastructure. While some modernization efforts took place, the occupation faced strong Haitian resistance, particularly from the Cacos, rural insurgents who fought against U.S. control.

The U.S. finally withdrew in 1934 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy, but Haiti remained under U.S. financial oversight until 1947.

The 1918 bill was a significant early attempt to address racial violence and inequality through federal legislation, but it highlighted the challenges of enacting civil rights protections during that era.

Despite the persistent efforts of civil rights organizations and leaders, it would take many years before a federal anti-lynching law was passed, and it wasn’t until 2022 that the Emmett Till Anti-Lynching Act was signed into law, making lynching a federal hate crime.

Dr. Bernard A. Harris Jr. was selected by NASA in January 1990 and officially became an astronaut in July 1991.  He was qualified for the mission specialist position on Space Shuttle flight crews. Dr. Harris made history during his second mission, STS-63 in February 1995, when he became the first African American to perform a spacewalk.  He logged over 438 hours in space and traveled approximately 7.2 million miles during his NASA career.  After leaving NASA in 1996, Dr. Harris pursued further education, earning a master’s degree in biomedical science from the University of Texas Medical Branch and an MBA from the University of Houston.  He has since been involved in various ventures, including serving as CEO of Vesalius Ventures, a venture capital accelerator investing in early-stage companies in medical informatics and technology.  Dr. Harris is also the founder of The Harris Foundation, a non-profit organization dedicated to supporting education, health, and wealth in disadvantaged communities.

The Hartford riots of 1970 occurred in the aftermath of racial tensions and community frustrations in the city. They were sparked by a combination of factors, including poor living conditions for Black residents, lack of job opportunities, and incidents of police brutality. On July 29, 1970, tensions boiled over, and protests erupted into six days of rioting in the city’s North End.

The disturbances were largely centered around police-community relations, with many residents expressing anger at the lack of justice and equity in Hartford. The riots caused significant damage to property, and the National Guard was eventually deployed to restore order. The events of the riots became a symbol of the broader struggles for racial justice during the Civil Rights Movement.

The National Association of Negro Musicians (NAMM) played a crucial role in promoting African American musicians and artists. The first convention in 1919 marked a major milestone, particularly with the awarding of a scholarship to Marian Anderson, who would later become one of the most celebrated contraltos in the world. Her career and legacy helped pave the way for many future African American artists in classical music. It’s impressive how this moment reflects the intersection of music and social progress.

Chester Himes, born on July 29, 1909, was an influential African American crime novelist known for his hard-boiled detective novels. His works often tackled racial issues and social injustice, reflecting the struggles of Black Americans in mid-20th-century America. Himes is best known for his series of novels featuring Harlem detectives, especially the Coffin Ed Johnson and Grave Digger Jones characters, which gained critical acclaim for their gritty realism and vivid portrayal of Harlem life. His writing style is noted for blending noir, social commentary, and complex character development.

The First National Convention of Black Women was held on July 29, 1885, in Chicago, Illinois. It was a significant event in the history of African American women’s activism and organization. The convention brought together Black women from various parts of the United States to discuss social, political, and economic issues affecting African Americans, particularly Black women.

One of the key figures associated with this convention was Frances E.W. Harper, a prominent writer, activist, and suffragist, who was a vocal advocate for the rights of African Americans and women. The convention provided a platform for Black women to unite and address their shared concerns, and it helped lay the foundation for future Black women’s organizations.

It also contributed to the larger movement for civil rights and women’s suffrage, advocating for issues like education, economic independence, and the elimination of racial and gender discrimination. The event helped pave the way for future activism by Black women in the United States.

George Dixon, the Canadian-born boxer, was indeed born on July 29, 1870. He was a notable figure in the history of boxing, especially famous for his accomplishments in the featherweight division. Dixon made history in 1890 by becoming the first Black boxer to win a World title, which was a major milestone at the time. Not only did he achieve that milestone, but he also became the first to hold a World title in two different weight classes, solidifying his legacy as one of the greatest pioneers in the sport.  He was known for his speed, skill, and technical prowess inside the ring. His accomplishments were groundbreaking, especially considering the racial challenges of his time. He remains an inspiration in boxing history.

On July 30, 1822, James Varick was consecrated as the first bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AME Zion Church). This was a significant event in the history of the church, which is one of the oldest African American denominations in the United States. Varick was a prominent leader in the church and played a key role in its establishment and growth, especially at a time when African Americans faced immense challenges and discrimination, even within religious communities. His consecration marked an important step in the empowerment of African Americans in their religious and social lives.

Louis Lomax, the influential African American journalist and author, passed away on July 30, 1970. He was known for his groundbreaking work in the civil rights movement and his insightful journalism. Lomax was particularly recognized for his book The Death of White Sociology and for being one of the first to extensively write about Malcolm X, helping to bring attention to his ideas and activism. Lomax also had a significant role in the development of African American media and was a key figure in raising awareness about racial issues during the 1960s and 1970s.

The Milwaukee riot took place from July 30 to August 3, 1967, during a time of racial tension across the United States. The riot was sparked by an incident involving police brutality, leading to clashes between African American residents and the police. The National Guard was called in to restore order, and the unrest resulted in the deaths of four people.

This was part of a series of racial riots in American cities in the summer of 1967, fueled by frustrations over poor living conditions, racial discrimination, and police violence. The Milwaukee riot, while not as widely known as those in Detroit or Newark, was significant in highlighting the growing racial tensions in the country.

Adam Clayton Powell Jr. was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1944, not July 30, 1945. He represented Harlem, New York, becoming the first African American congressman from New York State.

Before his congressional tenure, Powell was a prominent civil rights activist and pastor. He served as the pastor of the Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem, where he was known for his advocacy for civil rights and social justice.

In Congress, Powell was a strong advocate for civil rights and social justice. He introduced the “Powell Amendment,” which sought to bar federal funds from segregated institutions. Although the amendment did not pass, it laid the groundwork for future civil rights legislation.

Powell’s legacy includes his role in advancing civil rights and his leadership in representing Harlem in Congress. He served in the House of Representatives from 1945 to 1971, making significant contributions to the civil rights movement and the betterment of African Americans.

Buddy Guy was born on July 30, 1936, in Lettsworth, Louisiana. He is often considered one of the greatest blues guitarists of all time and is a key figure in shaping the Chicago blues sound. His influence stretches across genres, impacting rock, jazz, and blues, with many legendary musicians, such as Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, and Stevie Ray Vaughan, citing him as an inspiration.

Some of his most popular records include “First Time I Met The Blues” and “Stone Crazy”, both of which showcase his signature playing style, filled with expressive bends, wild improvisations, and heartfelt lyrics. He continues to be a major force in the blues world, performing and recording well into his later years.

White Democrats, led by police, attacked a convention of Black and white Republicans in New Orleans. More than 40 persons were killed, and at least 150 were wounded. Gen. Philip H. Sheridan, Military commander of the state, said, “It was not riot; it was an absolute massacre…which the mayor and the police of the city were complicit in. The attack on the Republican convention was a violent response to the political power shift taking place in the post-Civil War South. This incident, known as the New Orleans Massacre, occurred during the Reconstruction era when Southern whites were resisting the social and political advances of African Americans and their allies. The massacre is considered one of the most brutal instances of racial violence during this time.

On July 30, 1866, Edward G. Walker and Charles L. Mitchell made history by becoming the first African Americans to sit in the legislature of an American state in the post-Civil War era. Walker, the son of the famous abolitionist David Walker, and Mitchell, who was elected to the Massachusetts Assembly from Boston, both played key roles in reshaping American political life during the Reconstruction period. This milestone represented the significant progress made in civil rights following the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, although African American political participation would face many challenges in the years that followed.

On July 30, 1864, during the American Civil War, the Union forces attempted a major assault by exploding a mine beneath the Confederate lines near Petersburg, Virginia. The explosion created a large crater, which Union forces hoped to exploit. However, the attack was poorly planned, and the Union soldiers, including white and Black divisions from the Ninth Corps, faced strong resistance and heavy casualties. The Ninth Corps’ Black division, in particular, sustained significant losses during the ill-fated charge.

While the broader Union attack failed, there was some success that day. The Forty-third United States Colored Troops (U.S.C.T.), a regiment of Black soldiers, performed admirably by capturing over 200 Confederate soldiers and two stands of colors (flags), marking a notable achievement amid the overall Union defeat at the Battle of the Crater. This day highlighted the courage and contributions of Black soldiers in the Civil War, despite the challenges they faced.

President Abraham Lincoln issued the “eye-for-eye” order on July 30, 1863, during the Civil War as part of his efforts to address the treatment of African American prisoners by the Confederacy. This order was a response to the Confederacy’s policy of executing Black Union soldiers and enslaving Black prisoners of war. In the order, Lincoln warned the Confederacy that for every Black soldier or civilian killed or enslaved, the Union would retaliate by executing or condemning to hard labor an equivalent number of Confederate prisoners.

The intent behind this order was to deter the Confederacy from continuing such harsh and inhumane treatment of Black prisoners, as well as to exert pressure on the Confederate government. It had a significant restraining influence on Confederate actions, as the Confederacy, recognizing the Union’s resolve, generally took more care in the treatment of Black prisoners after this point.

This move highlights Lincoln’s moral stance on the rights of Black individuals during the war, and it was one of the ways in which the Union sought to weaken the Confederate cause while strengthening its commitment to ending slavery.

On July 31, 1960, Elijah Muhammad, leader of the Nation of Islam, publicly advocated for the creation of a separate, autonomous state for African Americans. This call underscored the ongoing racial tensions and separatist movements during the Civil Rights era.

Elijah Muhammad’s leadership of the Nation of Islam was marked by his promotion of black nationalism and separatism. He rejected the integrationist approach of the mainstream civil rights movement, instead advocating for a separate black community and the establishment of a sovereign African-American nation-state, particularly in the southern United States.

This stance was part of a broader black nationalist ideology that sought to empower African Americans by fostering a positive self-identity and promoting self-sufficiency. The Nation of Islam’s teachings emphasized black pride, economic empowerment, and the rejection of white supremacy.

Elijah Muhammad’s call for a separate black state on July 31, 1960, was a significant expression of the black nationalist sentiment of the time, reflecting the desire for self-determination and the creation of a society where African Americans could exercise full control over their social, economic, and political destinies.

On July 31, 1981, Arnette R. Hubbard made history by becoming the first woman president of the National Bar Association (NBA). This was a significant milestone, as the NBA is one of the largest and oldest associations of African American attorneys in the United States. Hubbard’s leadership marked a moment of progress and a breaking of barriers within the organization, inspiring many women and people of color in the legal profession. Her accomplishment was a testament to her dedication and leadership in the field of law.

On July 31, 1969, the Louisiana National Guard was mobilized in response to racial disturbances in Baton Rouge. These disturbances stemmed from heightened racial tensions, including protests and violence, as the civil rights movement was gaining momentum across the country. The mobilization came after violent clashes between the African American community and police. Baton Rouge, like many other southern cities during the late 1960s, was a focal point for racial struggles, especially concerning issues like segregation, voting rights, and police brutality. The National Guard’s involvement aimed to restore order, but such events marked a turbulent time in the struggle for civil rights.

Laurence Fishburne was born on July 31, 1961, in Augusta, Georgia. He began his acting career at a young age and quickly gained recognition. By 11, he was already making his mark as a prominent figure in the entertainment world, most notably for his role on the soap opera One Life to Live, where he became part of the first African American family featured in a daytime drama. His career later expanded to iconic roles in films such as The Matrix trilogy, Boyz n the Hood, and Apocalypse Now. Fishburne has established himself as one of the most respected actors in Hollywood.

Patrick Francis Healy, S.J., was a trailblazer, not only as the first Black man to earn a Ph.D. but also as the first Black president of Georgetown University. His appointment marked a significant moment in higher education, particularly in an era when racial segregation and discrimination were widespread.

Healy’s achievements stand out, especially considering the context of the time. His leadership helped shape the future of Georgetown and higher education institutions in the U.S.